KwmnRRK 


AND 

MILLWRIGHrS 

,  ASSIS3MI  y 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/americanmillermiOOhughrich 


HOW€)'S  PATENT  DIRECT  ACTION  WATER  WHEEL. 

This  draft  represents  the  top  view  of  a  Re-action  Central  Discharging  Water  Wheel. 
No.  I  represents  a  Perpendicular  Shaft;  No.  2,  the  Arms;  No.  3,  the  Hangers  to  sus- 
pend the  Rims;  No.  4,  the  Rims  and  Buckets;  No.  5,  Bulk  Head  ;  No.  6,  Spouts  to 
conduct  the  water  into  the  Wheel;  No.  7,  Circular  Gate ;  No.  9,  Apron. 

Plate  1. 


AMERICAN  MILLER, 


MILLWRIGHT'S  ASSISTANT. 


"  He  who  does  not  keep  himself  on  the  line  of  knowledge,  will  soon  find 
this  world  ahead  of  him,  and  his  associations  belonging  to  a  past  genera- 
tion."— Extract  from  a  Speech  delivered  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  Slates, 
JaniMry„  1850,  by 

SENATOR  CASS,  OF  MICHiaAN, 

TO  WHOM  THIS  WOEK   IS  MOST   EESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


By  WILLIAM  CARTER  HUGHES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY    CAREY    BAIRD, 

(SUCCESSOR    TO  B.  L.   CAREY,) 
S.    E.    CORNER    MARKET    AND     FIFTH     STREETS. 

185L 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNL\ 

DAVIS 


•^^'^'■i'  y^^»%«.\X 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850,  by 

William  Carter  Hughes, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  District  of  Michigan. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1851,  by 
Henry  Carey  Baird, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


STEREOTYPED  BY  L.  JOHNSON  AND  CO. 

PHILADELPHIA. 
PRINTED  BY  T.  K.  AND  P.  G.  COLLINS. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  FIRST. 

PAGB 

Introduction 7 

Explanation  of  Technical  Words 11 

On  the  First  Principles  of  Mechanics 13 

The  Principle  of  the  Lever 15 

Inclined  Plane 18 

Pulley 19 

Motion 20 

Central  Forces 23 

Friction,  or  Resistance  to  Motion 25 

Table  of  the  Surfaces  of  Contact  without  Urgents 29 

Table  of  the  Results  of  Experiments  on  Friction,  with 

Urgents.     By  M.  Morin 30 

Table  of  Diameters  of  First  Movers 35 

, Table  of  Ditvmeters  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  Areas 

and  Side  of  Equal  Squares 36 

Table  of  Geometrical  Definitions  of  the  Circle  and  its 

Parts 37 

Centre  of  Percussion  and  Oscillation 38 

Hydrostatics — Introduction 39 

On  the  Upward  and  Downward  Pressure  of  Water 40 

Specific  Gravity 42 

Table  of  Specific  Gravities... 43 

Hydrodynamic  Power  of  Water  Wheels 45 

On  the  Action  and  Reaction  of  Water,  as  applied   to 

Water- Wheels 46 

3 


4  CONTENTS. 

On    the    Construction    of    the    Combination    Reaction 

Water-Wheel 50 

Table  of  Velocities  of  Water-Wheels  per  minute,  with 

Heads  of  from  4  to  30  feet 64 

Table  of  the  number  of  Inches  of  Water  necessary  to 
drive  one  Run    of  Stone,  for  Grist  or  Saw-Mills   on 

heads  of  4  to  30  feet 55 

Table    showing   the    required   length   of  Overshot   and 

Breast- Wheels,  on  heads  of  10  to  30  feet 56 

Howd's  Direct  Action  Water-Wheel 57 

Direction  for  making  the  same 58 

Vandewater's  Water-Wheel 60 

Engraving  of. 61 

Table  exhibiting  the  quantity  of  Wheat  ground  per  hour 
by  Vandewater's  Wheel 62 

PART  SECOND. 

Remarks  on  the  Culture  of  Grain,  &c 63 

Table  of  Grain  grown  in  the  United  States 65 

On   the  Quality  of  French  Burr,  as  best  adapted  for 

Grinding  Wheat  and  Corn 66 

The  Raccoon  Burr  Stone 69 

Directions  for  Preparing  new  Stones  for  Grinding.... 70 

Directions  for  laying  out  the  Dress  in  Millstones 73 

A  special  Treatise  on  thediflFerent  Millstone  Dresses  now 

in  use,  with  practical  remarks  on  their  action 74 

Directions  for  making  Furrows  on  the  most  approved 

plan 80 

Directions  for    Staffing    and  Cracking   the  face  of  the 

Millstone 81 

On  the  best  size  of  Millstones  for  different  water  powers  83 

Practical  remarks  on  Grinding  Wheat  and  Corn 84 

Remarks  on  Indian  Corn,  as  an  article  of  foreign  con- 
sumption   87 


CONTENTS.  5 

On  the  Construction  of  Merchant  Bolts  on  the  old  plan..     88 
Description  of  a  new  arrangement  of  the  Merchant  Bolts 

on  the  most  approved  plan 89 

Directions  for  making  Bolting  Cloths  of  all  descriptions...     91 

On  the  proper  size  of  Mill  Picks  for  Dressing  Stones 91 

Composition  for  Tempering  Cast-steel  Mill  Picks 92 

On  the  use  of  the  Proof  Staff 93 

On  the  amount  of  help  necessary  to  be  employed  in  a  Mill 

of  four  run  of  Stones,  with  their  duties  respectively...     94 

Hydraulics,  as  pertaining  to  the  practical  Millwright 96 

Powers  of  Gravity,  Percussion  or  Impulse,  with  the  re- 
action attachment 99 

Remarks  to  the  Millwright  on  the   necessity  of  economy 

in  planning   and  arranging  the  Machinery  of  Flouring 

and  Grist-Mills 103 

On  Bedding  the  Stone 105 

To  find  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  Water -Wheel  per 

minute 108 

To  find  the  velocity  of  the  Stone  per  minute 108 

Rule  to  find  the  Diameters  of  all  Pitch  Circles 109 

To  find  how  many  revolutions  the  Stone  makes  for  one  of 

the  W^ater- Wheel 109 

On  Machinery 110 

Rule  for  constructing  the  Conveyor 110 

On  the  construction  of  the  Mill-Dam Ill 

On  the  different  kinds  of  Smut  Machines  now  in  use,  with 

rules  for  making  the  same 115 

Remarks  on  a  late  invention  for  introducing  air  between 

Millstones  when  Grinding 118 

Description  of  the  Author's  Grain  Dryer,  patented    1850  120 

Rules  for  the  purchase  of  Wheat  for  Millers'  use 123 

The  proper  method  for  fitting  the  Bale  and  Driver  to  the 

Millstone 127 

Remarks  on  Packing  Flour 129 

Table  for  Packing  Flour 130 

1* 


6  CONTENTS. 

r 

Remarks  on  branding  Flour  in  Barrels 130 

Mauk's  Patent  Bolt 131 

On  the  Inspection  of  Flour 132 

Report  on  the  Breadstuffs  of  the  United  States,  their  re- 
lative value,  and  the  injury  which  they  sustain  by 
transportation,  warehousing,  &c.  &c. — By  Lewis    C. 

Beck,  M.  D 134 

Analysis  of  Wheat  Flour 160 

Results  of  the  Analyses 166 

Table  for  Reckoning  the  price  of  Wheat 170 

Steam,  as  applied  to  Propelling  Mills 183 

On  the  Construction  of  the  Saw-Mill 184 

Table  for  Measuring  Saw-Logs 187 

Harrison's  Patent  Mill 189 

Troy  French  Burr  Mill-Stone  Manufactory 190 

Lafayette  Burr  Mill  Manufactory 192 

Utica  French  Burr  Mill-Stone  Manufactory 192 

Improved  Patent  Balance 194 

Rochester  French  Burr  Mill-Stone  Establishment 196 

Remarks  on  a  New  Description  of  Bolting  Material  for 

Grist  Mills : 197 

Brown's  Wheat  Scale,  with  Hopper 198 

Brown's  Patent  Smut  Machine 199 

Bran  Dusters  and  Separators  Combined 200 

Bonnell's  Improved  Process  of  Flouring 202 

Analysis  of  Wheat  Flour 204 

A  new  and  perfect  Machine  for  Cracking  Corn  in  the  Cob  215 

Troy  (New  York)  Mill-Gearing  Establishment 216 

Clasp  Coupling  Joint 217 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  motto  which  we  have  adopted  on  the  title 
page  of  this  work,  is  purely  American  in  senti- 
ment, and  one  of  those  original  ideas  of  our  dis- 
tinguished Senator,  emanating  from  the  depths  of 
profound  intellectual  greatness,  and  standing  as 
the  star  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to  illuminate 
the  path  of  the  down-trodden  and  oppressed. 
And  when  time  has  passed  with  those  of  this  gene- 
ration, these  immortal  sentiments  will  ever  stand 
out  in  bold  relief,  to  perpetuate  his  name  with  the 
sovereignty  of  the  American  people.  And,  al- 
though expressed  on  a  very  different  subject  from 
which  it  is  here  introduced,  as  a  doctrine  which  we 
fully  believe  in,  we  cannot  observe  any  reason  to 
forbid  its  adoption  into  the  science  of  mechanics, 
as  well  as  that  of  politics,  or  any  other  science 
beneficial  to  mankind. 

In  its  practical  application  to  this  work,  we  have 
been  guided  entirely  by  its  principles,  drawn  from 
an  advanced  state  of  improvement  which  marks  the 
age  in  which  we  live;    and  by  contrasting  the 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

past  with  the  present  age,  we  can  recognise  that 
march  of  improvement,  stamping  as  it  does  all 
branches  of  our  national  industry ;  and  none  with 
more  satisfactory  results  than  the  Milling  business 
of  the  United  States.  The  Milling  business  occu- 
pies a  respectable  portion  of  our  national  industry, 
and  gives  employment  to  a  large  investment  of 
capital  in  all  the  principal  wheat-growing  States 
of  this  Union,  which  contributes  largely  to  the 
benefit  of  our  American  farmers,  in  making  a 
home  market  for  Wheat  and  Indian  Corn,  the  two 
principal  staples  of  American  produce. 

The  author  of  this  work,  having  spent  the  best 
portion  of  his  life  in  the  pursuit  of  his  calling  as 
a  practical  Miller,  begs  to  say,  in  preparing  this 
work  for  the  milling  public,  that  his  object  is  to 
establish  a  correct  guide  to  a  business  which  so 
little  is  known  about,  in  a  shape  of  substantial 
reference,  instead  of  speculative  theories,  and  that 
confined  to  the  minds  only  of  those  who  are 
attached  to  the  business,  either  by  the  employment 
of  capital  or  otherwise. 

Special  regard  has  also  been  paid  to  most  of  the 
essential  improvements  which  have,  of  late,  been 
introduced  for  the  benefit  of  the  miller.  And  we 
can  also  say,  that  we  have  omitted  a  large  number 
of  late  inventions,  from  the  belief  of  their  utter 
worthlessness  for  a  great  many  of  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  designed ;  and  those  of  our  friends 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

who  furnished  us  with  drafts  and  long  statements 
of  their  peculiar  views  on  milling,  will  please  ac- 
cept our  thanks  for  the  same,  and  this,  our  apology 
for  not  giving  them  a  place  in  these  pages. 

We  have  thought  proper  to  insert  in  this  work 
a  Report  made  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  of 
the  United  States,  in  the  year  1848,  on  Breadstuff's, 
their  relative  value,  and  the  injury  which  they  sus- 
tain from  various  causes,  by  Lewis  C.  Beck,  M.  D., 
an  article  which,  of  itself,  highly  sustains  that 
gentleman's  character,  for  the  task  he  had  to  per- 
form ;  and  also  reflects  much  credit  on  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents,  Mr.  Burke,  for  the  selection 
he  made  of  a  person  fully  competent  to  perform 
the  same. 

The  Report  contains  a  scientific  chemical  analysis 
of  wheat  and  wheat  flour,  with  other  important 
information,  highly  useful  to  all  engaged  in  milling, 
as  well  as  dealers  in  breadstuff's ;  and  we  consider 
it  one  of  the  most  useful  and  important  public 
documents  ever  distributed  from  the  Patent  Office 
of  the  United  States. 

With  a  full  assurance  and  hope  that  this  work 
may  prove  useful  to  all  engaged  in  milling, 
I  respectfully  subscribe  myself, 

Wm.  C.  Hughes. 


EXPLANATION 

OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS  USED  IN   THIS  WORK. 


Aperture^  the  opening  or  passage  through  which  water 
is  received  or  discharged. 

Area,  the  plain  surface  of  superficial  contents. 

Cubic,  equation  in  algebra^  an  equation  in  whitjh  the 
highest  or  only  power  of  the  unknown  quantity  is  a  cube. 
Cube  root  is  the  number  or  quantity  which,  multiplied 
into  itself  and  then  into  the  product,  produces  the  cube. 
A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62  J  lbs. 

Equilibrium  J  equipoise,  equality  of  weight  or  force ;  a 
state  of  rest  produced  by  the  mutual  counter  action  of 
two  bodies. 

Friction,  the  act  of  rubbing  the  surface  of  one  body 
against  another. 

Gravity,  weight,  heaviness — the  tendency  of  matter 
towards  its  central  body.  Weight  is  the  measure  of 
gravity. 

Specific  gravity  means  the  weight  of  a  body  com- 
pared with  another  of  equal  bulk,  taken  as  the  standard. 
Water  is  the  standard  for  solids  and  liquids,  and  air  for 
gas. 

11 


12  EXPLANATIONS   OF  TECHNICAL   WORDS. 

Eydronamics,  that  science  which  treats  of  the  pro- 
perties and  relations  of  water  and  other  fluids,  either  at 
rest  or  in  motion. 

Hydraulics,  the  science  of  fluids  in  motion ;  pertain- 
ing to  hydronamics. 

Impulse,  force  communicated  instantaneously. 

Impetus,  force  of  motion. 

Momentum,  the  quantity  of  motion  in  a  moving  body 
proportioned  to  the  product  of  the  quantity  of  matter, 
multiplied  by  its  velocity. 

Percussion,  the  shock  produced  by  the  instant  striking 
of  bodies;  the  centre  of  percussion  is  that  point  in  a 
moving  body  about  which  the  impetus  of  the  parts  is 
balanced,  and  when  stopped  by  any  force,  the  whole 
motion  of  the  revolving  body  is  stopped  at  the  same  time. 

Quiescence,  a  state  of  rest. 

Radius,  in  geometry,  a  right  line  drawn  from  the 
centre  of  a  circle  to  the  periphery,  the  semi-diameter  of 
the  circle. 

Right  Angle,  in  geometry,  an  angle  of  ninety  degrees 
or  one-fourth  of  a  circle. 

Squared,  is  any  number  multiplied  by  itself. 

Theory,  an  exposition  of  the  general  principles  of  any 
science;  the  science  distinguished  from  the  art,  and 
without  practice. 

Urgent,  pressing  with  necessity. 

Yelocity,  is  that  efiection  of  motion  by  which  a  body 
moves  over  a  certain  space  in  a  certain  time. 

Viscosity,  a  glutinous  tenacity  which  inclines  soft* 
bodies  to  stick  closely  together. 


THE 


AMERICAN   MILLEE, 


MILLWRIGHT'S  ASSISTANT. 


PART  FIRST. 

ON  THE    FIRST   PRINCIPLES    OF   MECHANICS. 

The  science  of  mechanism  is  founded  on  the  true 
principles  of  natural  philosophy,  and  of  these  principles 
we  shall  here  treat  in  a  plain,  simple  manner ;  as  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  principles  of  truth  and  certainty,  in 
mechanical  science,  is  as  essential  to  the  practitioner  of 
the  mechanic  arts,  as  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  human 
frame  is  to  the  skilful  anatomist. 

The  theory  of  mechanics  is  essential  to  all  intelligent 
minds ;  and,  as  far  as  it  relates  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
mind  of  the  practical  mechanic,  for  whose  benefit  this 
work  is  designed,  we  shall  contemplate  the  mechanical 

2  13 


14  THE  AMERICAN  MILLER, 

powers  to  be  three  in  number,  namely :  the  lever,  the 
inclined  plane,  and  the  pulley.  Some  authors  of  our 
acquaintance  denominate  them  as  six  in  number :  the 
three  latter  as  the  wheel,  axle,  and  screw.  But  it  is 
clearly  evident  that  the  three  latter  are  derivatives  of 
the  three  former,  as  the  wheel  and  axle,  properly  con- 
sidered, is  a  revolving  lever,  the  screw  being  a  revolving 
inclined  plane. 

The  mechanical  powers  are  known  by  the  following 
terms :  as  weight  and  force,  or  power  and  resistance, — 
weight  being  the  resistance  necessary  to  overcome,  power 
the  force  requisite  to  overcome  that  resistance.  When 
they  are  equal,  they  are  said  to  be  in  equilibrio,  which 
implies  that  no  motion  can  take  place.  But  when  the 
force  becomes  greater  than  the  resistance,  they  are  not 
in  equilibrium,  as  motion  takes  place.  Then  power 
being  a  compound  of  weight,  may  be  determined  by 
being  multiplied  by  its  relative  velocity. 

That  which  gives  motion  is  called  power,  that  which 
receives  it  is  called  weight. 

Mechanical  powers  are  the  most  simple  of  the  me- 
chanical inventions,  as  applicable  to  increase  force  and 
overcome  resistance. 

The  first  of  those  powers  which  claim  our  attention 
being,  in  effect  of  mechanical  utility,  the  most  essential 
to  the  millwright,  namely, 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  15 


THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  LEVER. 

The  lever  may  be  considered,  by  all  mechanics,  as 
the  leading  power  of  the  whole  science  of  mechanism. 
For  example,  look  at  the  formation  of  the  entire  animal 
creation,  the  superstructure  of  which  is  a  beautiful 
illustration  of  those  powers  so  largely  developed  in  all 
animal  creation, — every  limb  acting  as  a  lever,  me- 
chanically arranged  by  joints,  as  the  fulcrums  of  cen- 
tral motion. 

There  is  no  description  of  machinery,  formed  by  the 
machinist,  but  of  which  the  principle  of  the  lever  is  the 
governing  mechanical  power ;  the  effect  of  which  may 
either  increase  or  decrease  its  relative  power,  according 
to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  applied.  Then,  we  say, 
millwrights  particularly  should  be  well  acquainted  with 
the  natural  laws  by  which  the  powers  of  this  engine 
are  accurately  demonstrated. 

The  lever  we  must  suppose  to  be  composed  of  some 
inflexible  body,  as  wood  or  metal ;  and  although  differ- 
ing in  form  in  the  various  mechanical  machines,  is  al- 
ways governed  by  the  same  laws  of  central  motion. 
This  central  motion,  in  the  common  lever,  is  calculated 
from  where  the  press  or  fulcrum  is  attached,  which  is 
called  the  centre  of  motion,  the  lever  being  capable  of 
turning  easily  on  that  point. 

When  the  lever  projects  on  either  side  of  the  fulcrum, 
the  projections  are  mechanically  called  arms,  from  which 
we  derive  the  power  of  the  engine.     When  the  fulcrum 


16  THE  AMERICAN   MILLEK, 

stands  between  the  weight  and  the  power,  by  the  follow- 
ing simple  rules  we  can  easily  determine  the  mechanical 
advantage  gained;  for  divide  the  weight  you  wish  to 
raise  by  the  power  you  have  to  apply,  and  the  quotient 
is  the  diflPerence  of  leverage ;  or, 

Multiply  the  weight  by  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum, 
and  the  power  from  the  same  point ;  then  the  weight 
and  power  will  be  to  each  other  as  their  products. 

Example :  A  weight  of  1440  lbs.  you  wish  to  raise 
by  a  force  of  70  lbs. ;  the  length  of  the  short  arm  of 
the  lever  being  one  foot  from  the  fulcrum,  what  must 
the  length  of  the  long  one  be  ?  The  answer  is  20|  feet 
in  length,  where  the  power  is  applied  to  one  foot,  the 
weight  being  attached. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  omit  the  working  of  the 
question,  and  simply  state  the  answer,  as  it  saves  the 
introduction  of  algebraic  signs,  which  would  only  tend 
to  lengthen  the  subject  without  facilitating  our  main 
object,  namely,  a  proper  illustration  of  computing  the 
power,  which  is  the  mechanical  advantage  gained  by  the 
use  of  all  levers,  of  whatever  form,  in  a  plain  manner. 

Therefore,  for  ascertaining  the  relation  which  exists 
between  power  and  weight  in  the  lever,  the  general  rule 
is  to  multiply  the  power  by  its  distance  from  the 
fulcrum ;  being  equal  to  the  weight  multiplied  by  its 
distance  from  the  same  point,  the  fulcrum  acting  as  the 
centre  of  motion  in  all  engines  of  this  description. 

The  analogy  that  exists  between  all  machines  whose 
power  is  obtained  from  the  principle  of  the  lever,  is 
very  great ;  such  machines  being  all  governed  by  one 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  17 

Bimple  principle,  which  should  be  considered  as  the 
general  law  of  mechanical  power  :  namely,  the  momen- 
tums  of  the  power  and  weight  are  always  equal  when 
the  engine  is  in  equilibrio. 

Momentum  means  the  product  of  the  weight  of  the 
body  multiplied  into  the  distance  it  moves }  or  the  power 
multiplied  into  its  distance  from  the  centre  of  motion, 
or  into  its  velocity,  is  equal  to  the  weight  multiplied 
into  its  distance  moved.  Or  the  power  multiplied  into 
its  perpendicular  descent,  is  equal  to  the  weight  multi- 
plied into  its  perpendicular  ascent. 

The  next  law  of  mechanical  power  shows  the  power 
of  the  lever  and  velocity  of  the  weight  moved  are  always 
in  an  inverse  proportion  to  each  other;  as,  the  greater 
the  velocity  of  the  weight  moved,  the  less  it  must  be ; 
and  the  less  the  velocity,  the  greater  the  weight  may  be. 

The  lever  is  of  four  kinds ;  the  one  above  described 
is  the  first  and  common  kind,  by  which  the  greatest 
mechanical  effect  is  obtained,  as  the  fulcrum  or  centre 
of  motion  is  placed  between  the  weight  and  power ;  the 
nearer  the  weight,  the  greater  the  power. 

The  second  kind  of  lever  is  where  the  fulcrum  is  at 
one  end,  and  the  power  at  the  other.  Its  effective  power 
is  simply  as  3  is  to  1,  where,  in  a  lever  of  the  first  kind, 
the  effective  power  is  as  12  to  1. 

The  third  kind  of  lever  is  where  the  fulcrum  is  at  one 
end,  the  weight  at  the  other,  and  the  power  applied  be- 
tween them. 

The  fourth  is  the  curved  lever,  which  differs  only  in 
form  from  the  others,  its  properties  being  the  same. 

2» 


18  THE  AMERICAN  MILLER, 

The  first  and  second  are  engines  of  real  power ;  while 
the  third  tends  to  decrease  power  in  the  same  ratio  that 
the  others  increase  it,  and  are  only  useful  to  the  me- 
chanic in  obtaining  velocity  where  the  first  mover  is  too 
slow,  as  is  the  case  in  the  construction  of  mills  propelled 
by  water,  where  over-shot  breast,  or  under-shot  water- 
wheels  are  used.  All  wheels  are  constructed  on  this 
principle  of  the  third  kind  of  lever.  But  in  the  con- 
struction of  mills  of  modern  date,  they  may  be,  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  all  used  on  the  principle  of  levers  of 
the  first  kind;  which  we  shall  clearly  and  simply  illus- 
trate in  this  work,  under  the  head  of  water-wheels. 


THE  INCLINED  PLANE. 

This  mechanical  power  gives  existence  to  a  variety  of 
useful  machines  of  recent  invention,  and  is  used  in  com- 
bination with  the  lever  of  the  first  kind,  which  makes  it 
a  compound  machine  of  extensive  use. 

The  wedge  is  simply  an  inclined  plane,  and  may  be 
considered,  for  many  purposes,  as  one  of  the  most  useful 
of  the  mechanical  powers.  The  next  is  the  screw,  which 
is  a  revolving  inclined  plane,  and  is  used  for  pressure 
and  raising  heavy  weights.  The  screw  is  a  spiral  groove 
cut  round  a  cylinder,  and  everywhere  describing  the  same 
angle  with  its  length  of  thread,  and,  if  unfurled  and 
stretched,  would  form  a  straight  inclined  plane,  the 
length  of  which  would  be,  to  its  height,  as  the  circum- 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  19 

ference  of  the  cylinder  is  to  the  distance  between  two 
threads  of  the  screw ;  for  in  making  one  round,  the  spi- 
ral rises  along  the  cylinder  the  distance  between  two 
threads.  The  length  of  the  plane  is  found  by  adding 
the  square  of  the  distance  between  the  threads,  and  ex- 
tracting the  square  root  of  the  same.  As  the  length  of 
an  inclined  plane  is  to  the  pitch  or  height  of  it,  so  is  the 
weight  to  the  power;  or  if  the  height  of  the  plane  be 
one-third  its  length,  then  one-third  of  the  power  will 
raise  a  body  up  the  plane  by  rolling,  that  it  would  take 
to  raise  it  up  perpendicularly ;  but  it  would  travel  three 
times  the  distance.  The  general  principle  is — as  the 
height  of  the  plane  is  to  the  height  or  angle  of  inclina- 
tion, so  is  the  weight  to  the  power,  invariably. 


THE  PULLEY. 

A  Pulley  is  a  mechanical  assistant  by  which  a  great 
deal  of  power  is  obtained  in  a  small  compass,  but  more 
convenient  in  accommodating  the  direction  of  power  to 
that  of  resistance,  as,  by  pulling  downwards,  we  are  able 
to  draw  a  weight  upwards;  the  advantage  gained  being 
twice  the  number  of  movable  pulleys.  The  system  of 
pulleys  is  very  simple,  and  may  be  ascertained  as  follows  : 

To  find  the  weight  that  may  be  raised  by  a  knowil 
power  and  a  given  number  of  pulleys,  fixed  or  station- 
ary, multiply  the  power  by  twice  the  number  of  mova- 
ble pulleys,  and  the  product  is  the  weight  the  power 


20 

equals.  Example  :  To  find  the  weight  that  a  power  of 
180  lbs.  will  raise  by  a  block  and  tackle,  the  bottom 
or  movable  block  consisting  of  four  pulleys, 

multiply     180 

by  8 

Answer — equal  to     1440  lbs. 

A  single  pulley  may  be  constructed  so  that  the  weight 
will  be  as  three  times  the  power.  When  more  than  one 
rope  is  used,  in  a  system  of  pulleys  where  the  ends  of 
one  rope  are  fastened  to  the  support  and  power,  and  the 
ends  of  the  other  to  the  lower  and  upper  blocks,  the 
weight  is  to  the  power  as  4  to  1.  The  principal  objec- 
tion to  this  machine  is  the  loss  of  power  by  friction  of 
the  pulleys. 


MOTION. 

Motion  always  is  the  effect  of  impulsive  force,  or  the 
act  of  changing  place.  In  mechanical  engines  it  is  un- 
derstood as  the  act  of  transmitting  power,  or  the  means 
by  which  power  is  distributed.  Equality  or  inequality 
of  motion  is  as  the  diameters  of  the  wheels  by  which  it 
is  transmitted.  The  relative  velocity  of  wheels  is  as  the 
number  of  cogs  contained  in  each  wheel.  To  find  the 
relative  velocity  or  number  of  revolutions  of  the  last 
wheel  to  one  of  the  first :  Rule,  divide  the  product  of 
the  cogs  of  the  wheels  that  are  drivers  by  the  product  of 
the  driven,  and  the  quotient  is  the  number. 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  21 

To  find  the  number  of  cogs  in  a  train  of  wheels  to  pro- 
duce a  certain  velocity :  as  the  velocity  required  is  to  the 
number  of  cogs  in  the  driven,  so  is  the  velocity  of  the 
driver  to  the  number  of  cogs  in  the  leader.  To  find  the 
proportions  that  the  velocities  of  the  wheel  in  a  train 
should  bear  to  each  other :  E-ule,  subtract  the  less  ve- 
locity from  the  greater,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  one 
less  than  the  number  of  wheels  in  the  train ;  the  quo- 
tient is  the  number,  rising,  in  arithmetical  progression, 
from  the  less  to  the  greater  velocity. 

Before  we  dismiss  the  subject  of  motion,  we  shall  now 
consider  the  first  principles  by  which  motion  is  obtained 
and  governed,  namely,  absolute  and  relative. 

Absolute  motion  is  that  pertaining  to  the  removal  of 
material  bodies  from  place  to  place,  and  governed  en- 
tirely by  the  principles  of  natural  philosophy,  and  per- 
taining only  to  the  theory  of  mechanics ;  for  in  practical 
mechanics  we  have  to  do  with  relative  motion  only, 
which  consists  in  the  difference  of  time  occupied  by  the 
motion  of  different  bodies,  as  time  is  the  specific  measure 
of  its  velocity.  There  are  but  few  branches  of  the  me- 
chanic arts  which  are  so  essential  to  the  millwright,  as 
a  proper  knowledge  of  the  laws  which  govern,  and  on 
which  the  principles  of  mechanical  motions  are  based;  as 
the  trade  consists  in  the  use,  construction,  and  arrangement 
of  engines  of  moving  power,  which  in  mills  is  the  force 
to  move  and  facilitate  the  different  manufactures  for 
which  they  are  applied. 

Then  the  first  thought  of  the  practical  mechanic  should 
be,  how  to  construct  and  arrange  his  machinery,  so  that 


22  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

the  power  which  he  has  to  apply,  may  be  used  in  the 
best  possible  mode  of  construction  and  arrangement  of 
his  machinery,  on  combined  scientific  and  practical  prin- 
ciples of  mechanical  economy. 

The  next  idea  to  be  considered  is  one  of  mechanical 
importance,  namely,  that  as  motion  increases  power  de- 
creases. This  is  what  may  be  considered  one  of  those 
self-evident  facts  apparent  in  the  very  nature  of  all  en- 
gines that  can  possibly  be  constructed;  and  which  is  also 
evident  from  the  first  principle  of  the  lever,  when  in 
equilibrium,  as  the  power  multiplied  into  its  velocity  or 
distance  moved  is  equal  to  the  weight  multiplied  into 
its  velocity  or  distance  moved. 

From  these  facts  we  see  the  necessity  of  guarding 
ourselves,  as  much  as  possible,  against  every  absurd  and 
unphilosophical  practice  of  many  millwrights  of  the 
present  day,  to  wit,  building  mills  with  double  gearing 
when  single  would  be  better;  for  single -geared  mills  are 
always  cheaper  in  their  construction,  easier  kept  in  re- 
pair, and,  when  properly  constructed,  are  as  powerful 
as  the  best  double-geared  mills  in  the  most  favourable 
situations. 

We  suppose  there  are  many  who  may  differ  with  us  in 
this  opinion,  and  that  we  shall  be  obliged  to  present  au- 
thority, to  convince  and  establish  our  peculiar  views  in 
this  particular.  This  we  hope  to  do  tinder  its  appropri- 
ate head  of  water-wheels. 

All  must  admit  that  double  gearing  diminishes  power, 
by  the  increased  resistance  to  motion,  as  that  of  friction ; 
as  the  more  machinery  used  for  a  given  purpose,  the 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  23 

more  it  tends  to  complication,  and  the  increasing  power- 
destroying  agent,  friction.  It  must  be  admitted,  also, 
that  no  power  can  be  obtained  by  the  addition  of  engines, 
while  the  velocity  of  the  body  moved  remains  the  same. 
And  machinery  requiring  a  different  velocity,  where  the 
driving  power  is  the  same,  (as  is  the  case  in  flouring 
mills,  the  motion  being  as  varied  as  the  different  useful 
machines  required  in  manufacturing  grain,)  should  be 
attached  as  near  as  possible  to  the  first  moving  wheel,  as 
the  greater  the  distance  from  the  first  driving  wheel,  the 
greater  the  force  of  resistance  to  motion,  and  produces  a 
constant  tendency  to  equilibrium,  in  all  machines  re- 
quiring a  great  velocity. 


CENTKAL  FORCES. 

Bodies  moving  round  a  central  point  have  a  tendency 
to  fly  off  in  a  straight  line.  This  tendency  is  called  the 
centrifugal  force.  It  is  opposite  to  the  centripetal  force, 
or  that  power  which  maintains  a  body  in  its  curved  state. 
Centrifugal  force  flies  from  the  centre,  centripetal  force 
to  the  centre,  and  are  called  central  forces. 

There  is  no  real  power  attached  to  those  forces  called 
central  forces,  they  being  only  the  effect  of  the  power 
which  gives  motion  to  all  bodies,  and  can  neither  add  to 
nor  diminish  the  power  of  any  mechanical  or  hydraulic 
engine,  unless  it  be  by  friction,  when  water  is  the  mov- 
ing power,  and  the  machine  changes  its  direction.     The 


24  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

centrifugal  forces  of  two  unequal  bodies,  moving  with 
the  same  velocity,  and  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
central  body,  are  to  one  another  as  the  respective  quan- 
tities of  matter  in  the  two  bodies. 

The  centrifugal  forces  of  two  equal  bodies  which  per- 
form their  revolutions  around  the  central  body  in  the 
same  time,  but  at  different  distances  from  it,  are  to  one 
another  as  their  respective  distances  from  the  central 
body.  The  centrifugal  forces  of  two  bodies  which  per- 
form their  revolutions  in  the  same  time,  and  whose 
quantities  of  matter  are  inversely  as  their  distances 
from  the  centre,  are  equal  to  one  another.  The  cen- 
trifugal force  of  two  equal  bodies  moving  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  the  central  body,  but  with  different  veloci- 
ties, are  to  one  another  as  the  squares  of  their  velocities. 

The  centrifugal  forces  of  two  unequal  bodies  moving 
at  equal  distances  from  the  centre,  with  different  veloci- 
ties, are  to  one  another  in  the  compound  ratio  of  their 
quantities  of  matter  and  the  squares  of  their  velocities. 

The  centrifugal  forces  of  two  equal  bodies  moving 
with  equal  velocities,  at  different  distances  from  the 
centre,  are  inversely  as  their  distances  from  the  centre. 

The  centrifugal  forces  of  two  unequal  bodies  moving 
with  equal  velocities,  at  different  distances  from  the  cen- 
tre, are  to  one  another  as  their  quantities  of  matter  mul- 
tiplied by  their  respective  distances  from  the  centre. 

It  should  be  considered  that  this  central  force  com- 
municates no  real  power,  it  being  only  the  effect  of 
power  which  gives  motion  to  a  body,  and  can  neither  in- 
crease nor  diminish  the  power  of  any  mechanical  engine. 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  25 


FEICTION,  OE  RESISTANCE  TO  MOTION. 

The  greater  part  of  all  that  is  yet  known  with  cer- 
tainty respecting  the  laws  and  properties  which  govern 
friction,  is  founded  upon  practical  experiments,  instituted 
on  a  large  scale,  and  submitted  to  a  great  variety  of 
trials,  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  philosophers  of  the 
last  century. 

M.  Colomb,  member  of  the  Academy  of  Science  at 
Paris,  and  Professor  Yince,  of  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, have  written  the  most  scientific  and  accurate 
treatises  on  the  natural  laws  of  friction ;  by  which  we 
are  informed  that  friction  does  not  increase  with  the  in- 
crease of  rubbing  surfaces ;  or,  in  other  words,  however 
the  magnitude  of  the  surface  of  contact  may  vary,  the 
friction  will  still  remain  the  same,  so  long  as  the  pres- 
sure is  unchanged. 

Friction  supposes  moving  or  tending  to  move  on  the 
surface  of  another,  or,  in  words  more  explicit,  occasioned 
by  the  uniting  of  bodies  whose  velocity  is  sufficiently 
great  to  produce  friction.  There  are  three  ways  in 
which  one  surface  can  move  upon  another,  in  each  of 
which  friction  acts  differently  : — 

1.  When  one  body  slides  upon  the  plain  surface  of 
another  body. 

.  2.  When  one  body,  being  cylindrical,  rolls  upon  the 
surface  of  another  body. 

3.  When  a  solid  cylinder  is  inserted  in  a  hollow 


26  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

cylinder  of  greater  diameter,  and  being  pressed  in  any 
direction  with  a  certain  force,  revolves  with  it. 

Colomb  has  satisfactorily  established,  by  repeated 
experiments,  all  of  which  are  confirmed  by  the  experi- 
ments of  others,  that,  under  the  same  circumstances,  the 
friction  of  one  surface  moving  upon  another  is  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  pressure  used  and  with  which  the  sur- 
faces are  urged  together. 

Colomb,  Ximenes,  and  Yince,  in  their  experiments 
respecting  the  laws  and  properties  which  govern  fric- 
tion, assert,  that  when  any  substance  has  several  faces  of 
different  magnitudes,  the  friction  will  be  the  same  on 
whatever  face  it  is  placed,  except  in  an  extreme  case, 
when  they  found  a  slight  deviation  from  the  law;  when 
the  pressures  used  were  extremely  intense,  it  was  found 
that  the  friction  did  not  increase  in  quite  so  fast  a  pro- 
portion as  the  pressure.  The  deviation  from  the  law 
was  so  inconsiderable,  and  happened  only  in  such  ex- 
treme cases,  that  it  might  be  for  the  most  part  un- 
noticed. 

When  one  cylinder  rolls  upon  the  surface  of  another 
body,  the  friction  is  in  proportion  to  the  pressure; 
while  with  cylinders  of  the  same  substance,  having 
different  diameters,  but  equal  pressures,  the  friction  is 
inversely  as  the  diameters.  Again :  cylinders  of  the 
same  substance,  differing  both  in  diameter  and  pressure, 
the  friction  is  directly  as  the  pressure,  and  inversely  as 
the  diameters,  or  in  a  compound  of  the  direct  ratio  of 
the  pressure  and  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  diameters. 

When  a  solid  cylinder  is  inserted  in  a  hollow  cylinder 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  27 

of  a  greater  diameter  without  rolling,  if  the  hollow  cylin- 
der be  supposed  to  revolve  around  the  axle,  as  happens 
in  the  case  of  a  carriage  wheel,  every  part  of  the  surface 
of  the  box  will  be  exposed  to  the  effect  of  friction,  while 
no  part  of  the  axle  will  suffer  this  effect  except  the  side 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  box,  which  is  the  side 
that  is  operated  upon  by  the  force  of  draft  or  pressure. 

Then  the  friction  being  equal  to  this  force  that  over- 
comes friction  and  produces  motion,  multiplied  by  the 
radius  of  the  wheel  and  divided  by  the  radius  of  the 
hollow  cylinder  which  plays  upon  the  axle,  then  it  ap- 
pears that  the  friction  is  greater  than  the  preponderat- 
ing weight;  in  the  proportion  of  the  radius  of  the 
wheel  to  the  radius  of  the  cylinder. 

In  the  years  1831,  1832,  and  1833,  a  very  extensive 
set  of  experiments  were  made  at  Mentz,  by  M.  Morrin, 
under  the  sanction  of  the  French  government,  to  deter- 
mine, as  near  as  possible,  the  laws  of  friction,  and  by 
which  the  following  were  fully  adduced  and  established. 

1st.  When  no  urgent  was  interposed,  the  friction  of 
any  two  surfaces,  whether  of  quiescence  or  of  motion,  is 
directly  proportioned  to  the  force  with  which  they  are 
pressed  perpendicularly  together ;  so  that,  for  any  two 
given  surfaces  of  contact,  there  is  a  constant  ratio  of  the 
friction  to  the  perpendicular  pressure  of  the  one  surface 
upon  the  other.  While  this  ratio  is  thus  the  same  for 
the  same  surfaces  of  contact,  it  is  different  for  different 
surfaces  of  conta<jt.  The  perpendicular  value  of  it,  in 
respect  to  any  two  given  surfaces  of  contact,  is  called 
the  co-efficient  of  friction  in  respect  to  those  surfaces. 


28  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

2d.  When  no  urgent  is  interposed,  the  amount  of  the 
friction  is,  in  every  case,  wholly  independent  of  the  ex- 
tent of  the  surfaces  of  contact ;  so  that  the  force  with 
which  two  surfaces  are  pressed  together  being  the  same, 
their  friction  is  the  same,  whatever  may  be  the  extent 
of  their  surfaces  of  contact. 

3d.  That  the  friction  of  motion  is  wholly  independent 
of  the  velocity  of  the  motion. 

4th.  That  where  urgents  are  interposed,  the  co-effi- 
cient of  friction  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  urgent, 
and  upon  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  the  supply. 

In  respect  to  the  nature  or  supply  of  the  urgent,  there 
are  two  extreme  cases :  that  in  which  the  surfaces  of 
contact  are  but  slightly  rubbed  with  unctuous  matter,  as, 
for  instance,  with  an  oiled  or  greasy  cloth ;  and  that  in 
which  a  continuous  flow  or  stratum  of  urgent  remains 
continually  interposed  between  the  moving  surfaces  of 
contact. 

Professor  Morrin  found,  that  with  urgents,  hog's-lard 
and  olive  oil,  in  a  continuous  stratum  between  surface 
of  wood  on  metal,  wood  on  wood,  metal  on  metal,  when 
in  motion,  have  all  of  them  very  near  the  same  co-effi- 
cient of  friction,  being  in  all  cases  included  between  07 
and  08. 

The  co-efficient  for  the  urgent,  tallow,  is  the  same, 
except  in  that  of  metals  upon  metals.  This  substance 
seems  to  be  less  suited  for  metallic  substances  than  the 
other,  and  gives  for  the  mean  value  of  its  co-efficient, 
under  the  same  circumstances,  10.  Hence  it  is  evident, 
that  where  the  extent  of  the  surface  sustaining  a  given 


AND   MILLWRIGHT  S  ASSISTANT. 


29 


pressure  is  so  great  as  to  make  the  pressure  less  than 
that  which  corresponds  to  a  state  of  perfect  separation, 
this  greater  extent  of  surface  tends  to  increase  the  fric- 
tion, by  reason  of  that  adhesiveness  of  the  urgent,  de- 
pendent upon  its  greater  or  less  velocity,  whose  effect  is 
proportioned  to  the  extent  of  surface  between  which  it 
is  interposed. 

Such  is  a  description  of  the  experiments  founded  by 
M.  Morrin,  under  the  orders  of  the  French  government, 
to  determine  those  laws  of  friction  above  alluded  to. 

The  following  Table  slwios  tJte  result  of  those  experiments 
on  tJie  friction  of  unctuous  surf  ices;  meaning  surf  aces 
without  artificial  means  reducing  the  friction.  By 
M.  Morrin. 


GO-EFFICIENT  OF  FRICTION. 

SURFACES  OF  CONTACT. 

Friction  of 
motion. 

Friction  of 
quiescence. 

Oak  upon  oak,  the  fibres  being  parallel 
to  the  motion 

0.108 
0.13G 
0.330 
0.160 
0.177 

0.143 
0.107 
0.144 
0.132 
0.107 
0.134 
0.115 
0.229 
0.244 

0.390 

Oak  upon  elm,  fibres  parallel 

0.420 

Beech  upon  oak,          do 

Wrought  iron  upon  brass 

Do.             "wrought  iron 

Do.             cast           do 

0.118 

Cast  iron  upon  wrought  iron 

Do.            oak 

0.100 

Do.            cast  iron 

Do.            brass 

Brass  upon  cast  iron 

Do.       brass   

Yellow  Conner  unon  cast  iron. 

Leather,  well  tanned,  upon  cast  iron,  wet, 
Do.                     brass,        do.. 

0.267 

30 


THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 


Table 

Of  the  Results  of  Experiments  on  Friction  with  Urgents 
interposed.     By  M.  Morrin. 


CO-EFFICIENT  OF  FRICTION. 

SURFACES  OF  CONTACT. 

Frictiou  of 

Friction  of 

URGENTS. 

motion. 

quiescence. 

Oak  upon  oak,  fibres  parallel, 

0.1G4 

0.440 

Dry  soap. 

Do.                     do. 

0.075 

0.164 

Tallow. 

Do.                     do. 

0.067 

Hog's  lard. 

Do.  fibres  perpendicular. 

0.083 

0.250 

Tallow. 

Do.             do. 

0.072 

Hog's  lard. 

Do.             do. 

0.250 

Water. 

Do.  elm,  fibres  parallel, 

0.036 

Dry  soap. 

Do.  cast  iron 

0.080 

Tallow. 

Do.  wroueht  iron 

0.098 

Tallow 

]Elm  upon  cast  iron. 

0.066 

Tallow. 

Wrought  iron  upon  )^  fibres 

oak,       j  parallel. 

0.256 

0.649 

r  Grease  & 
t  water. 

Do.                        do. 

0.214 

Dry  soap. 

Do.                        do. 

0.085 

0.108 

Tallow. 

Do.         elm,        do. 

0.078 

Tallow. 

Do.          cast  iron 

0.103 

Tallow. 

Do.          wrought  iron. 

0.082 

Tallow. 

Do          brass 

0.103 
0.075 

Tallow 

Do.            do. 

Hog's  lard. 

Do.             do. 

0.078 

Olive  oil. 

Cast  iron  upon  cast  iron 

0.314 

Water. 

Do.          wrought  iron. 

6.100 

Tallow. 

Do.         brass 

0.103 
0.075 

Tallow 

Do.            do. 

Hog's  lard. 

Brass  unon  brass 

0.058 

Olive  oil 

Do.         cast  iron 

0.086 
0.081 

0.106 

Tallow 

Do.         wrought  iron 

Tallow. 

Yellow  copper  upon  cast  iron. 

0.072 

0.103 

Tallow. 

Steel  unon  cast  iron 

0.105 

0  108 

Tallow 

Do.           do. 

0.079 

Olive  oil. 

Do.      wrought  iron 

0.093 

Tallow. 

Do.      brass 

0.056 

Tallow. 

AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  31 

Professor  Morrin  does  not  state  the  amount  of  press- 
ure used  in  the  state  of  quiescence  by  which  he  found 
those  results,  or  the  motion  used;  consequently,  we  may 
safely  infer  them  to  be  the  same  in  each  particular  case, 
for  both  tables,  with  the  urgents  and  without. 

The  extent  of  the  surfaces  in  these  experiments  bore 
such  a  relation  to  the  pressure,  as  to  cause  them  to  be 
separated  from  one  another  throughout,  by  an  interposed 
stratum  of  the  urgent. 

Those  experiments  prove  of  great  advantage  to  the 
mechanic,  particularly  the  machinist,  as  by  them  we 
find  the  mode  of  regulating  the  different  substances 
which  produce  the  least  friction. 

By  referring  to  the  first  table,  we  discover  the  best 
kinds  of  metals  which  should  be  used  for  journals  and 
journals  bearings,  as  brass  and  cast  iron,  by  experiment, 
prove  to  produce  the  least  friction  without  any  urgent. 
And,  by  reference  to  the  second  table,  we  find  the  ur- 
gent which,  by  its  use,  we  can  reduce  the  friction  to  the 
lowest  point  in  all  kinds  of  machinery — namely,  olive 
oil.  Another  important  point,  which  must  naturally  be 
considered  by  the  machinist,  in  connection  with  the  sub- 
ject of  reducing  friction  in  all  kinds  of  machinery,  to 
produce  the  best  results,  a  due  regard  should  be  paid  to 
the  size  of  the  bearings  or  journals,  as  the  strength  of 
all  revolving  shafts  are  directly  as  the  cubes  of  their 
diameters,  and  inversely  as  the  resistance  they  have  to 
overcome. 

Mr.  Buchanan,  in  his  essay  on  the  strength  of  shafts, 
gives  the  following  from  several  experiments,  viz. ; — 


82  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

That  the  fly-wheel  shaft  of  a  50  horse-power  engine,  at 
50  revolutions  per  minute,  requires  to  be  7}  inches 
in  diameter,  and  the  cube  of  this  diameter,  being 
equal  to  421,875,  serves  as  a  multiplier  to  all  other 
shafts  in  the  same  proportion;  and,  taking  this  as  as- 
certained, he  gives  the  following  multipliers,  viz. : 
for  the  shafts  of  steam-engines,  water-wheels,  and  all 
others  connected  with  the  first  power,  as  400  for  shafts, 
in  mills,  leading  from  the  water-wheel  or  first  mover ; 
to  drive  small  machinery,  200 ;  for  the  smaller  shafts 
which  lead  from  the  main  uprights,  100.  The  rule 
being  that  the  number  of  horses*  power  a  shaft  is  equal 
to  is  directly  as  the  cube  of  the  diameters  and  number 
of  revolutions,  and  inversely  as  the  above  multipliers, 
so  should  the  size  of  the  journals  be. 

Some  employ  340,  instead  of  240,  as  the  multipliers, 
which  gives  too  great  a  diameter  to  journals  of  second 
movers ;  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  these  rules 
relate  entirely  to  the  size  of  the  journals  where  the 
power  applied  is  not  more  than  50  horse.  The  diame- 
ters of  second  movers  may  be  found  from  those  of  the 
first,  by  multiplying  by  8,  and  those  of  the  third 
movers,  by  multiplying  by  793,  respectively. 

One  kind  of  material  may  resist  much  better  than 
another  one  kind  of  strain,  but  expose  both  to  a  difier- 
ent  kind  of  strain,  and  that  which  was  weakest  before 
may  now  be  strongest.  This,  for  illustration,  is  the 
case  between  cast  and  wrought  iron;  the  cast  being 
stronger  than  the  wrought  when  exposed  to  twisting  or 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  33 

torsional  strain;    but  malleable  iron  is   tbe  strongest 
when  exposed  to  lateral  pressure. 

We  here  give  the  results  of  a  few  experiments  on  the 
weight  necessary  to  hoist  journals  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
close  to  their  bearings  ; — 

Metals.                                Pounds.  Ounces. 

Cast  steel 19  9 

Cast  iron ; 9  7 

Blister  steel 16  11 

Wrought  iron 10  2 

Swedish  iron,  wrought 9  8 

Hard  gun-metal 5  0 

Brass  vent 4  10 

Copper,  cast 4  5 

The  above  rules  are  worthy  the  notice  of  all  ma- 
chinists, as  much  of  that  beauty  pertaining  to  me- 
chanical structure,  depends  on  the  proper  proportioning 
of  the  magnitude  of  materials  to  the  stress  they  have 
to  bear,  and  what  is  of  far  more  importance,  its  absolute 
security.  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  a  cast-iron  rod 
will  sustain  more  torsional  pressure  than  a  malleable 
iron  rod  of  the  same  dimensions.  When  the  strength 
of  a  malleable  iron  rod  is  less  than  that  of  cast  iron  to 
resist  torsion,  it  is  stronger  than  cast  iron  to  resist 
lateral  pressure }  and  that  strength  is  as  the  proportion 
of  9  to  14. 

From  these  rules,  it  is  easy  for  any  millwright  to  ^ 
make  his  shafts  of  iron  best  suited  to  overcome  the  re- 
sistance of  friction,  or  any  other  material  impediment 


34 

to  whicli  they  may  be  subject,  and  to  proportion  the 
diameters  of  the  journals  according  to  the  iron  of  which 
they  are  made.  The  diameter  of  a  malleable  iron  jour- 
nal, to  sustain  an  equal  weight  with  a  cast  iron  journal 
of  7  inches  in  diameter,  requires  to  be  6.04  inches  in 
diameter. 

Square  bars,  with  a  journal  of  one  inch  in  diameter 
and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  gave  the  following 
results :  Wrought  iron,  Ulster  Co.,  New  York,  twisted 
with  326  lbs.,  and  broke  with  570  lbs.  Wrought  iron, 
Swedes,  same  length  of  lever  in  all  cases,  being  thirty 
inches,  twisted  with  367  lbs.,  and  broke  with  615  lbs. 
Cast  iron  broke  with  436  lbs.  The  diameters  for  light 
journals  should  be  found  by  multiplying  the  diameters 
ascertained  by  the  above  rules,  by  8  and  793,  respect- 
ively. 

The  rules   embraced  in  the  following  table  will  be 

.found  of  incalculable  value  to  the  millwright,  in  ascer- 

.  taining  the  proper  size  of  all  journals,  beginning  with 

the  smallest  size  first  movers,  of  the  power  of  from  4  to 

60  horse,  and  revolving  from  10  to  100  revolutions  per 

minute,  and  having  400  for  their  multiplier : 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT. 


35 


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ST- 


This  table  is  calculated  in  inches  and  12ths  of  an 
inch,  and  suited  for  mills  and  steam  engines  of  all  de- 
scriptions. 


We  have  thought  proper,  in  this  place,  to  insert  a 


86 


THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


correct  table  of  the  diameters  and  circumferences  of 
circles,  in  inches,  from  1  foot  to  30,  together  with  the 
area  and  side  of  equal  square,  which  the  millwright 
will  find  Tcry  convenient  for  all  practical  purposes : 


TaMe  of  the  Circumferences  of  Circles^  Areas j  and  Side 
of  Equal  Square. 


Diame- 
ters. 

Circum- 
ferences. 

Area. 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square. 

Diame- 
ters. 

Circum- 
ferences. 

Area  in 
feet,  and 
of  1000 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Feet. 

Ftr 

In. 

Feet, 

Ft.  In. 

12 

37.699 

110.097 

10.634 

8 

25 

50.265 

7     Or 

13 

40!840 

132!  732 

11.520 

9 

28 

63.617 

7  11- 

14 

43.982 

153.938 

12.406 

10 

31 

5 

78.540 

8    10;^ 

15 

47,124 

176.715 

13.293 

11 

34 

6| 

95.003 

9   a- 

16 

50.265 

201,062 

14.179 

12 

37 

81 

113.097 

10    7| 

17 

53,407 

226.980 

15.065 

13 

40  10" 

132.732 

11     6  ■ 

18 

56,548 

254.469 

15.951 

14 

43 

llf 

153.938 

12    4. 

19 

59.690 

283.529 

16.837 

15 

47 

1 

176.715 

13     3.^ 

20 

62.832 

314.160 

17.724 

16 

50 

3; 

201.062 

14    % 

21 

65,793 

346.361 

18.610 

17 

53 

4: 

226.980 

15    0- 

22 

69.115 

380.133 

19.496 

18 

56 

a 

254.469 

15  11 

23 

72.256 

415.476 

20.384 

19 

59 

8r 

283.529 

16  10 

24 

75.398 

452.890 

21.268 

20 

62 

% 

314.160 

17    8| 

25 

78.540 

490.875 

22.155 

21 

65 

llf 

346.361 

18        7; 

26 

81.681 

530.930 

23.041 

22 

69 

If 

380.133 

19     5- 

27 

84.823 

572.556 

23.927 

23 

72 

3 

415.476 

20    4.^ 

28 

87.964 

615.753 

24.813 

24 

75 

4J 

452.390 

21         3; 

29 

91.106 

660,541 

25.699 

25 

78 

63 

490.875 

22     1 

so 

94.248 

706.860 

26.586 

26 

81 

6^ 

530.930 

23     0 

81 

97.389 

754.769 

27.472 

27 

84 

8i 

572.556 

23    11; 

82 

100.531 

804.249 

28,358 

28 

87 

9| 

615.753 

24     9- 

33 

103.672 

855.30 

29.244 

29 

91 

10 

660.521 

25     8^ 

84 

106.814 

907.92 

30.131 

30 

94 

3 

706.860 

26     7 

35 

109.956 

962.11 

31.017 

36 

113.097 

1017.87 

31.903 

48 

150.796 

1309.56 

42.537 

60 

188.496 

2827.44 

53.172 

72 

226.195 

4071.51 

63.806 

84 

263.894 

5541.78 

74.440 

AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  37 


GEOMETRICAL  DEFINITIONS    OF  THE    CIE- 
CLE   AND  ITS  PARTS. 

1.  A  CIRCLE  is  a  plain  figure  bounded  by  a  curved  line, 
called  the  circumference,  every  part  of  which  is  equally 
distant  from  a  certain  point,  called  the  centre. 

2.  The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  passing 
through  the  centre,  and  terminating  at  the  circumfe- 
rence. 

3.  The  radius,  at  semi-diameter,  is  a  straight  line  ex- 
tending from  the  centre  to  the  circumference. 

4.  A  semi-circle  is  one-half  of  the  circumference. 

5.  A  quadrant  is  one  quarter  of  the  circumference. 

6.  An  arc  is  any  portion  of  the  circumference. 

7.  A  chord  is  a  straight  line  joining  the  two  extremes 
of  an  arc. 

8.  A  circular  segment  is  the  space  contained  between 
an  arc  and  its  chord ;  the  chord  is  sometimes  called  the 
base  of  the  segment.  The  height  of  the  segment  is 
the  perpendicular  from  the  middle  of  the  base  of  the  arc. 

9.  A  circular  sector  is  the  space  contained  between 
an  arc  and  the  two  radii,  drawn  from  the  extremes  of 
the  arc. 

10.  A  circular  zone  is  the  space  contained  between 
two  parallel  chords,  from  their  bases. 

11.  A  circular  ring  is  the  space  between  the  circum- 
ferences of  two  concentric  circles. 

12.  A  lune,  or  crescent,  is  the  space  between  two 
circular  arcs  which  intersect  each  other. 

4 


38  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER; 

13.  An  ellipsis  is  a  curved  line  which  returns  into 
itself,  like  a  circle,  but  having  two  diameters  of  unequal 
length,  the  longest  of  which  is  called  the  transverse, 
and  the  shortest  the  conjugate  axis. 

Problem. — To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  the 
diameter  given  : — Multiply  the  diameter  by  22,  and  di- 
vide by  7.  Or,  for  greater  accuracy,  multiply  by  355, 
and  divide  the  product  by  113. 

Example : — "What  is  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
whose  diameter  is  40  feet  ?  Answer,  125  feet,  6  inches 
and  |ths.  See  table  of  circumferences  of  circles, 
page  36. 


CENTRE   OF  PERCUSSION  AND   OSCIL- 
LATION. 

The  centre  of  percussion  and  oscillation  is  the  point 
in  a  body  revolving  around  a  fixed  axis,  so  taken,  that 
when  it  is  stopped  by  any  force,  the  whole  motion,  and 
tendency  to  motion  of  the  revolving  body,  is  stopped  at 
the  same  time.  It  is  also  that  point  of  a  revolving 
body  which  would  strike  any  obstacle  with  the  greatest 
efiect,  and  from  this  property  it  has  received  the  name 
of  percussion.  The  centres  of  oscillation  and  percus- 
sion are  generally  treated  separately ;  but  the  two  cen- 
tres are  in  the  same  point,  and  therefore  their  properties 
are  the  same.  As  in  bodies  at  rest,  the  whole  weight 
may  be  considered  as  collected  in  the  centre  of  gravity, 
so  in  bodies  in  motion  the  whole  force  may  be  con- 
sidered as  concentrated  in  the  centre  of  percussion. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  39 


HYDROSTATICS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  treating  of  the  science  of  millwrighting,  it  has 
been  thought  proper,  by  some  authors,  to  merely  notice 
the  science  of  hydrostatics,  by  simply  pursuing  the  sub- 
ject under  the  head  of  hydraulics,  with  the  assertion 
that  hydrostatics  treats  of  fluids  in  a  state  of  rest  only, 
and  hydraulics  of  fluids  in  motion.  The  author  of  this 
work  has  thought  proper  to  treat  of  the  principles  which 
govern  both,  under  separate  heads,  as  pertaining  to 
water  as  a  fluid  only ;  it  being  the  only  fluid,  in  con- 
nection with  air,  which  relates  particularly  to  the  mill- 
wright. 

Hydrostatics  is  a  word  formed  from  two  Greek  words, 
which  signify  water  and  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
weight  of  bodies,  and,  as  a  branch  of  natural  philoso- 
phy, treats  of  the  nature  of  gravity,  pressure,  and  mode 
of  weighing  solids  in  water. 

Water  may  be  defined  as  a  perfect  fluid ;  and  the  less 
force  that  is  required  to  move  the  parts  of  a  fluid,  the 
more  perfect  is  that  fluid,  defined  as  a  body.  Philoso- 
phers agree,  that  the  particles  of  the  body  which  com- 
pose water  are  too  small  to'  be  examined  by  the  best 


40  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

glasses,  but  that  those  particles  are  round  and  smooth  : 
as  all  experience  proves  that  water  is  composed  of  small 
globular  particles.  This  fact  is  further  proved  bj  some 
experiments  made  by  one  of  the  ablest  philosophers  that 
ever  lived,  and  one  of  the  best  mathematicians  of  an- 
tiquity, Archimedes.  He  made  a  globe  of  gold,  and 
filled  it  with  water,  and  closed  it  so  accurately,  that  none 
could  escape ;  the  globe  was  then  placed  into  a  press, 
and  a  little  flattened  at  the  sides ;  the  power  of  com- 
pression was  applied  to  force  the  water  into  a  smaller 
space  :  but  the  result  was,  the  water  was  forced  through 
the  pores  of  the  gold,  and  stood  upon  the  surface  like 
drops  of  dew;  which  fact  induced  the  philosopher  to 
establish  the  idea  that  water  was  incompressible.  Which 
fully  establishes  the  fact,  that  the  particles  of  which 
water  is  composed  are  very  hard ;  for  if  they  were  not 
so,  you  can  easily  conceive,  that  since  there  are  vacui- 
ties between  them,  as  we  assert  there  are,  they  must,  by 
very  great  pressure,  be  brought  closer  together,  and 
would  evidently  occupy  less  space,  which  is  contrary  to 
fact. 


ON  THE  UPWARD  AND  DOWNWARD  PRES- 
SURE OF  WATER. 

Having  examined  the  nature  of  the  fluid,  water, 
the  next  subject  of  importance  is  the  upward  and  down- 
ward pressure  of  the  fluid  being  equal.  This  principle 
may  be  easily  explained,  by  the  fact  that  two  reservoirs 


\' 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  41 

of  18  feet  deep  eacli  may  be  connected  by  a  pipe  of 
10  inches  in  diameter;  by  filling  one  of  the  reservoirs 
with  water,  opening  the  pipe  so  as  to  allow  a  free  com- 
munication of  the  water  between  them,  the  pipe  being 
inserted  in  the  bottom  of  each,  the  water  will  pass  from 
one  to  the  other  till  it  stands  at  the  same  depth  in  each. 
Fluids  always  tend  to  a  natural  level,  or  curve  similar 
to  the  earth's  convexity,  every  point  of  which  is  equally 
distant  from  the  centre  of  the  earth ;  the  apparent  • 
level,  or  level  taken  by  any  instrument  for  that  pur- 
pose, being  only  a  tangent  to  the  earth* s  circumference. 
The  pressure  of  water  is  not  in  a  straight  line,  but  is 
propagated  in  every  direction, — upwards,  down  war  Js* 
sideways,  and  oblique ;  from  which  property  it  alr/ajF 
tends,  when  at  rest,  to  a  true  level. 

The  next  point  of  importance,  in  relation  to  the  pres- 
sure of  water,  is  the  influence  which  exists  between  water 
and  air,  and  which  we  denoniinate  as  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. 

It  is  by  the  affinity  which  exists  between  the  fluids, 
water  and  air,  that  we  can  use  them  as  the  motive 
power  in  assisting  mankind  to  accomplish  by  their  use 
what  would  require  the  application  of  animal  force  for 
mechanical  purposes.  It  is  by  this  principle  of  the 
pressure  of  air  on  water,  by  which  water  is  raised  to  the 
height  required  by  means  of  the  common  pump. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  rates  from  12  to  15  pounds  per  square  inch.  To 
illustrate  our  subject  more  clearly,  we  will  take  up  the 
principle  of   the   common  pump,   the  principle  being 

4* 


42  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

ruled  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  water, 
by  which  we  are  able  to  raise  a  given  quantity  of  water 
to  the  height  of  that  limited  point ;  which  is,  if  the 
water  in  a  well  be  more  than  32  or  33  feet  from  the 
valve,  you  might  pump  continually  without  effect;  as 
a  column  of  water  33  feet  in  height  is  equal  to  15 
pounds,  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  every  square 
inch,  which  results  in  a  perfect  equilibrium  of  the 
fluids ;  and  in  constructing  this  kind  of  pump,  the  valve 
should  never  be  placed  to  exceed  28  feet  beyond  the 
level  of  the  water,  owing  to  the  change  which  continu- 
ally takes  place  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
may  be  proper  here  to  state  the  comparative  difference 
that  exists  between  the  specific  gravity  of  water  and  air : 
one  cubic  foot  of  fresh  water  is  800  times  heavier  than 
the  same  quantity  of  air  at  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
supposing  the  barometer  to  stand  30  inches  in  height. 

Without  this  principle  of  natural  philosophy,  which 
treats  of  the  pressure  of  the  air,  there  would  be  no  such 
thing  as  the  downward  and  upward  pressure  of  fluids,  by 
which  we  are  able  to  use  them  beneficially  in  all  mechani- 
cal operations. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Before  we  enter  upon  the  methods  of  obtaining  the 
specific  gravity  of  bodies,  it  will  be  right  to  premise  a 
few  particulars,  which  it  is  necessary  should  be  well 
understood.     We  must  first  understand  that  the  specific 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  43 

gravity  of  different  bodies  depends  upon  the  different 
quantities  of  matter  which  equal  bulks  of  these  bodies 
contain.  As  the  momenta  of  different  bodies  are  esti- 
mated by  the  quantities  of  matter  when  the  velocities 
are  the  same,  so  is  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies  esti- 
mated by  the  quantities  of  matter  when  the  bulks  or 
magnitudes  are  the  same.  As  the  relative  weight  of 
any  body  of  a  certain  bulk  is,  compared  with  the 
weight  of  some  body,  taken  as  a  standard,  of  the  same 
bulk, — the  standard  of  comparison  being  water,  one 
cubic  foot  of  which  is  found  to  weigh  1000  ounces 
avoirdupois,  at  a  temperature  of  60  degrees  Fahrenheit, — 
so  the  weight  expressed  in  ounces  of  a  cubic  foot  of  any 
body,  will  be  its  specific  gravity. 

To  determine  the  specific  gravity :  If  a  body  be  a 
solid  heavier  than  water,  weigh  it  first  in  air,  note  the 
weight ;  then  immerse  it  in  water,  and  note  this  weight 
also ;  then  divide  the  body's  weight  in  air  by  the  differ- 
ence of  the  weights  in  air  and  water,  and  the  quotient 
is  the  specific  gravity  of  the  body.  If  it  be  a  solid 
lighter  than  water,  tie  a  piece  of  metal  to  it,  so  that  the 
compound  may  sink  in  water ;  then,  to  the  weight  of  • 
the  solid  itself  in  air,  add  the  weight  of  the  metal  in 
water,  and  from  this  sum  subtract  the  weight  of  the 
compound  in  water,  which  difference  makes  a  divisor  to 
a  dividend,  which  is  the  weight  of  the  solid  in  air;  then 
the  quotient  will  be  the  specific  gravity.  If  the  body 
be  a  fluid,  take  a  solid,  whose  specific  gravity  is  known, 
that  will  sink  in  the  fluid ;  then  take  the  difference  of 


44 


THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 


the  weights  of  the  solid  in  and  out  of  the  fluid,  and 
multiply  this  difference  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
solid ;  then  this  product,  divided  by  the  weight  of  the 
body  in  air,  will  give  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid. 

On  this  principle,  we  have  inserted  a  table  of  specific 
gravities.  The  columns,  "specific  gravity,''  represent 
the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  in  ounces  avoirdupois. 


Table 

of  Spec 

r/ic  Gravities. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Distilled  water .  .  . 

Sea  water 

Platina 

Standard  gold. .  .  . 

Mercury 

Standard  silver. .  . 
Lead 

1.000 

1.026 

23.000 

17.486 

13.560 

10.391 

11.352 

8.396 

7.788 

7.291 

7.207 

7.788 

7.191 

3.290 

2.700 

1.825 

1.250 

0.940 

0.900 

0.925 

0.800 

0.812 

0.755 

Elm 

Cork 

Cast  steel 

Wax 

Tallow 

0.600 
0.240 
7.833 

0.-897 
0.943 

Olive  oil 

Vitriol 

Apple  tree 

Mahogany,  Span. . 

Boxwood 

Logwood 

Ebony '.  . 

Lignumvitse 

Of  Gases. 

Hydrogen 

Carbon 

0.915 
1.841 

Brass 

Copper 

Tin 

Cast  iron 

Bar  iron 

Zinc 

Flint  glass 

Marble 

Ivory 

Coal 

Oil 

0.793 
0.852 
0.912 
0.913 
1.331 
1.333 

0.0694 
0  416fi 

Oak,  American .  . 

Oak,  English 

Ash,  white 

Ash,  black 

Maple,  hard 

Steam  of  water.  .  . 
Carburetted  Hyd. 

Azote 

Oxygen 

Nitric  acid 

0.481 

0.9722 

0.9723 

1.1111 

1.218 

AND    millwright's   ASSISTANT.  45 

The  specific  gravity  of  atmospheric  air,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  60  degrees  Fahr.,  and  barometric  column  30 
inches,  is,  according  to  experiments,  proved  to  be  1.22, 
which  shows  water  .to  be  800  times  heavier — the  air 
being  at  its  greatest  density. 


HYDRODYNAMIC    POWER   OF   WATER- 
WHEELS. 

Under  the  head  of  that  science  called  Hydrodynamics, 
we  shall  discuss  the  most  important  principles  of  water, 
as  applied  by  the  millwright  for  propelling  machinery, 
in  the  various  modes  of  application,  by  the  use  of  the 
water-wheel — an  ejagine  of  real  mechanical  utility.  To 
construct  a  water-wheel  by  which  we  may  use  water  to 
its  greatest  effect  in  propelling  mills  of  various  kinds,  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  sciences  of  hydrostatics  and 
hydrodynamics  is  indispensable  to  the  millwright ;  and 
without  the  knowledge  of  those  laws  of  natural  philoso- 
phy which  these  sciences  illustrate,  the  millwright  is  in- 
competent to  use  water  on  principles  of  scientific  econo- 
my. For  a  more  definite  and  accurate  illustration  of  our 
subject,  we  shall  denominate  those  important  principles 
as  first,  second,  and  third.  First  principles  of  all  fluids, 
more  particularly  water,  are  governed  by  natural  laws; 
second  principles  are  governed  by  the  application  of  the 
degree  of  science  used  in  those  principles;  and  the  third 
consists  in  the  inventive  genius  of  mankind,  as  developed 
in  the  various  machines  constructed  by  his  hands,  by 


46  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

which  he  uses  water  as  the  propelling  power  of  those 
machines. 

Before  we  speak  of  the  construction  of  any  of  those 
machines,  we  shall  first  illustrate  two  powers,  when  used 
as  such,  which  are  innate  principles  of  the  non-elastic 
fluid,  water — namely,  action  and  reaction.  The  latter 
principle,  as  a  power,  has  been  established  and  acknow- 
ledged by  all  writers  on  the  subject,  whether  mechanics 
or  philosophers ;  but  its  use,  in  connection  with  the  first 
or  direct  action  of  water,  is  as  yet  but  little  known  to 
the  most  enlightened  on  the  subject  of  hydraulics. 


ON  THE  ACTION  AND  REACTION  OF  WATER, 
AS  APPLIED  TO  WATER-WHEELS. 

What  we  mean  by  the  action  of  water  is,  the  first 
impulse  communicated  to  either  a  water-wheel  or  other 
body  by  being  exposed  to  the  force  of  a  column  of  water 
from  any  perpendicular  height;  and  if  that  force  be 
communicated  with  that  body  at  right  angles,  the  effect 
by  impulse  will  be  the  greatest.  It  is  by  the  action  of 
impulse  alone,  undershot  water-wheels  are  propelled. 
The  reactive  power  of  water  is  obtained  by  the  whirling 
vortex  of  the  water,  and  only  obtained  by  a  wheel  made 
suitable  to  the  motion  of  the  water,  when  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  direct  action  of  water  on  a  wheel  made 
expressly  to  suit  those  two  actions  of  the  fluid.  For  all 
purposes  where  motion  is  required  in  the  various  me- 
chanical engines,  the  greatest  power  possible  can  be  ob- 


AND    millwright's   ASSISTANT.  47 

tained  by  water  applied  in  this  manner.  The  direct 
action  of  water  by  impulse,  when  applied  to  a  wheel, 
receives  a  change  of  motion  by  the  resistance  of  the 
burden  to  be  overcome.  As  the  stroke  by  impulse  is 
communicated  to  the  bucket  of  the  wheel,  only  one-half 
of  the  power  of  the  column  of  water  is  received,  until 
the  other  action  is  communicated  from  the  wheel  to  the 
body  of  water  in  which  it  stands.  But  as  soon  as  the 
wheel  moves,  it  forms  a  whirling  vortex,  which  acts  in 
a  contrary  direction  to  the  first  action  of  the  water  by 
impulse ;  consequently,  by  this  means  we  receive  a 
double  action  of  the  same  water,  which  gives  a  double 
power. 

But  the  only  difficulty  existing  is  the  want  of  proper 
knowledge,  by  the  millwright,  how  to  construct  a  water- 
wheel  so  that  those  two  powers  may  be  united,  as  they 
should  be,  to  form  a  perfect  action  on  two  separate  sections 
of  the  water-wheel.  As  it  is  impossible  to  combine  direct 
action  and  reaction  on  the  same  section  or  bucket,  hence 
the  reason  why  so  many  have  failed  in  their  purpose  in 
the  use  of  the  reaction  water-wheel.  Within  the  last 
ten  or  fifteen  years,  a  numerous  tribe  of  reaction  water-« 
wheels  have  sprung  into  existence,  all  aiming  at  the 
main  object,  if  possible,  to  supersede  each  other  in  using 
the  least  complement  of  water  to  perform  the  greatest 
amount  of  work.  But,  from  a  personal  examination  of 
their  construction,  I  have  found  that  the  reaction  prin- 
ciple is  more  fully  perfected  in  the  most  of  the?h,  with- 
out the  slightest  appearance  of  a  knowledge  of  any  other 
principle  but  reaction  alone.      Such  wheels  are    only 


48  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

adapted  to  streams  wbere  there  is  no  necessity  for  eco- 
nomy in  the  use  of  water.  I  have  seen  other  wheels, 
again,  where  the  opposite  principle  was  the  only  one 
used;  and,  in  back-water,  could  not  be  used  at  all. 
The  latter  kind  is  acted  upon  by  the  impulse  of  the 
water  only,  and  only  produces,  like  the  undershot  wheel, 
half  of  the  effect  due  to  the  water  used.  To  unite  direct 
action  and  reaction  on  the  same  wheel,  the  buckets  re- 
quire to  be  shaped  as  different  as  the  action  of  the  water 
is  different  and  contrary ;  for  the  action  by  impulse  of 
the  water  should  act  on  the  wheel  in  a  manner  which 
will  communicate  the  greatest  force,  on  the  section  on 
which  it  acts,  by  its  stroke ;  and  in  all  cases  the  sur- 
face of  the  upper  buckets  should  be  equal  in  area  to  the 
column  of  water  acting  against  them. 

The  reaction  principle  is  purely  an  American  inven- 
tion for  using  water  on  wheels,  and  was  exported  from 
America  to  Europe  about  the  year  1828,  according  to 
an  account  of  the  introduction  of  this  principle  of  reac- 
tion, as  we  find  it  noticed  at  some  length  in  a  scientific 
journal  published  in  Paris;  and,  from  the  description, 
we  suppose  it  to  be  the  first  American  model,  as  invented 
by  Ferguson  about  the  year  1828.  The  wheel  is  exten- 
sively used  in  France,  and  called  there  the  tourhiUiorij 
or  turbine  water-wheel,  and  derives  its  name  from  the 
principle  by  which  the  power  is  obtained — namely,  the 
whirling  vortex.  But  I  discover  they  continue  the  same 
error  in  France,  as  well  as  in  America,  in  applying  the 
water  to  act  on  those  wheels  by  reaction  only,  and  also 
in  applying  the  water  at  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  and 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  49 

having  tlie  discharge  at  the  verge.  This  is  wrong,  and 
contrary  to  the  mechanical  principle  of  using  the  wheel 
as  a  lever  of  the  first  kind,  where  the  power  should  be 
used  at  one  end,  the  weight  being  at  the  other,  and  the 
axis  being  the  fulcrum  of  central  motion. 

We  also  wish  to  notice  what  must  be  seen  by  every 
person  in  its  proper  light,  who  will  take  time  to  examine 
the  subject  and  test  it  by  experience,  as  we^know  it  to  be 
unphilosophical.  It  is  the  mode  that  many  of  the  inven- 
tors 9-nd  vendors  of  reaction  water-wheels  have,  of  plac- 
ing them  to  work  onhorizontal  shaftSy  instead  of  vertical. 
We  presume  all  should  be  aware,  that  when  a  water- 
wheel  is  working  horizontally,  the  motion  tends  to  de- 
stroy, to  a  great  extent,  the  reaction  power  of  the  water. 
Skeptics  to  this  doctrine  very  naturally  ask,  Why  ?  We 
answer  by  saying,  experience  and  practice  on  the  sub- 
ject tell,  that  it  is  the  direction  in  which  the  wheel  runs 
that  the  greatest  amount  of  surface  of  contact  is  operated 
upon  by  the  water.  Those  who  favour  this  horizontal 
mode  of  application  tell  us,  that  the  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  axis  on  which  the  wheel  is  hung,  is  just 
sufficient  to  produce  the  greatest  maximum  effect  of  the 
reaction  power  of  the  water.  To  this  we  say,  that  only 
having  one-half  of  the  wheel  submerged,  you  can  obtain 
but  one-half  of  the  effect  of  what  we  call  the  action  of  the 
current  of  the  water ;  passing,  as  it  does,  through  the 
drat-boxes  or  casing  in  which  the  wheel  runs ;  and  the 
power  of  which  would  be  simply  in  proportion  as  the 
wheel  comes  in  contact  with  the  water.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that  the  water  on  those  wheels  never  changes 


50  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER; 

its  direction,  except  where  the  wheel  carries  it  back,  which 
is  more  or  less  generally  the  case  when  the  bucket  on 
which  it  acts  is  constructed  on  a  very  short  curve.  This 
is  the  case  with  nine-tenths  of  the  wheels  of  this  descrip- 
tion. In  applying  the  water  to  the  wheel,  its  action  is  in  a 
tangent  with  the  issue,  so  that  the  vortex  must  be  also  in 
the  same  line,  and  nothing  of  the  whirling  motion  that 
would  take  place  if  the  wheel  was  working  in  a  vertical 
position.  To  make  this  subject  plainer,  we  say  that  a 
horizontal  wheel  running  in  a  tangent,  the  water  can 
have  no  other  direction  (except  in  the  case  above  referred 
to)  than  that  of  a  straight  line,  which  the  position  of 
the  wheel  describes  to  contrary  lines,  which  completes 
the  formation  of  the  whirling  vortex  motion  given  to  the 
water  by  the  wheel  after  the  wheel  has  received  the  per- 
cussion stroke  of  the  water.  This  principle  makes  the 
reaction  power  perfect,  if  the  wheel  is  placed  to  work 
properly,  which  should  be  as  follows. 


ON  THE  CONSTKUCTION  OF  THE  COMBINA- 
TION REACTION  WATER-WHEEL, 

And  the  method  of  applying  the  water  for  propelling 
it,  to  produce  the  greatest  effect. 

The  great  mechanical  effect  of  reaction  water-wheels 
is  in  proportion  to  the  principles  of  scientific  knowledge 
displayed  in  their  construction.  To  enable  us  to  rank 
them  in  the  order  of  first-class  wheels,  from  our  remarks 


AND  millwright's  ASSISTANT.  51 

on  the  hydrodynamic  power  of  reaction  wheels,  we  have 
endeavoured  to  explain  all  the  leading  principles  which 
seem  to  us  to  be  absolutely  necessary  for  the  millwright 
to  understand ;  so  as  to  give  him  an  adequate  idea  of  the 
groundwork  or  root  of  those  principles ;  and  also  point- 
ing out  all  erroneous  forms  of  construction  and  appli- 
cation of  what  might  be  useful,  if  applied  as  science 
dictates,  in  those  wheels  alluded  to  in  our  previous 
remarks. 

The  great  superiority  of  the  combination  of  power,  in 
applying  water  on  reaction  wheels,  requires  but  to  be 
seen  to  be  universally  adopted  and  established,  in  pre- 
ference '  to  the  combined  and  effective  power  of  water 
used  on  the  overshot  wheel,  the  defects  in  which  we  shall 
establish  under  its  proper  head.  In  the  overshot  water- 
wheel,  there  are  but  two  mechanical  principles  which 
can  be  depended  upon  as  effective  in  their  application — 
namely,  that  of  the  lever  of  the  second  kind,  and  the 
use  of  the  water  by  its  gravity;  while  the  reaction 
wheel  combines  three — that  is,  when  the  water  is  ap- 
plied, like  the  overshot,  at  the  verge.  Although  differ- 
ing from  the  overshot  in  the  principle  of  the  lever,  as 
the  reaction  wheel  acts  as  a  lever  of  the  first  kind, 
which,  according  to  the  principle  of  the  lever  of  the 
first  kind,  as  explained  in  Mechanics,  page  15,  whose 
power  is  as  12  to  1,  and  the  former  wheel,  according  to 
the  lever,  as  explained  in  Mechanics,  page  17,  is  but  8 
to  1.  So  much  for  the  advantage  gained  in  favour  of 
reaction  wheels  on  the  first  principle — namely,  the 
lever. 


52  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

The  second  principle  is  the  application  of  the  water 
by  its  gravity  and  pressure ;  the  third,  the  combining 
of  the  reaction  force  of  the  water  with  the  first  or  direct 
action,  as  explained  on  page  46.  The  proper  method 
of  constructing  a  reaction  water-wheel  to  act  on  those 
principles  is  as  follows  : 

First,  let  the  millwright  consider  what  direction  is 
best  for  him  to  conduct  the  water  on  his  wheel ;  (we 
recommend  it  to  issue  from  the  head  at  right  angles 
with  the  buckets.)  Then  we  ask,  what  position  should 
the  bucket  of  the  wheel  be  in  with  the  axis  of  the  wheel, 
to  receive  the  greatest  effect  of  the  stroke  by  the  direct 
action  or  percussion  power  of  the  water?  We' answer, 
transversely ;  so  that  the  surface  of  the  bucket  next  the 
water  should  describe  a  perpendicular  plane,  measuring 
the  same  width  as  the  aperture  through  which  the  water 
issues  on  the  wheel  3  then  the  bucket  would  meet  the 
water  at  right  angles.  But  the  reaction  bucket  must  be 
attached  and  stand  in  the  form  of  an  inclined  plane, 
gradually  inclining  from  its  connection  with  the  trans- 
verse bucket,  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  top  bucket  to 
its  terminus.  The  angle  of  inclination  requires  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  length  of  the  bucket.  The  greater 
the  length  of  bucket,  the  greater  the  angle  of  inclina- 
tion; but  in  no  case  should  the  inclination  be  less 
than  45°. 

When  the  wheel  is  completed,  its  bottom  should  re- 
semble an  ordinary  screw,  the  bottom  tier  of  buckets 
forming  the  thread ;  and  in  placing  them  to  work,  they 
should  be  set  over  a  pit,  connecting  with  the  tail-race, 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  & 

at  least  two  feet  in  depth,  and  the  tail-race  requires  to 
be  sufficiently  deep  that  the  water  from  the  wheels  may 
not  be  impeded  by  any  unnecessary  resistance.  For 
mills  of  four  run  of  stones,  where  it  would  be  necessary 
to  use  five  of  these  combination  and  reaction  wheels,  the 
tail-race  ought  never  to  be  less  than  twelve  feet  wide, 
and  two  feet  eight  inches  in  depth.  From  what  we 
learn  of  the  nature  of  water  under  the  head  of  Hydro- 
statics, page  39,  we  find  it  necessary  to  construct  water- 
wheels  out  of  material  that  will  resist  the  water's  pene- 
trating into  the  wheel,  as  it  is  the  case  where  wood  is 
used  in  their  construction.  The  introduction  of  cast 
iron  is  a  most  essential  improvement,  inasmuch  as  the 
resistance  from  friction  is  about  one-third  less  than  wood, 
besides  its  great  durability ;  and  where  the  wheels  are 
well  protected,  by  racks  placed  in  the  flumes  to  keep  out 
all  obstructions,  they  will  last  a  lifetime. 

This  wheel,  as  described,  is  the  one  patented  by  Mr. 
Lansing,  of  Indiana,  some  few  years  since,  and  is  well 
known  to  the  author  of  this  work  as  being  a  superior 
first-class  wheel,  infinitely  superior  to  the  overshot  for 
many  reasons.  We  regret  exceedingly  not  being  able 
to  furnish  drawings  of  it  in  time  for  this  volume. 


M 


THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

A  TABLE 


0/the  Velocities  of  the  Combination  Eeaction  Water-wheels 
per  minute,  from  heads  of  from  four  to  thirty  feet^ 
calculated  at  the  maximum,  point  of  effect,  or  what  is 
generally  called  the  ^^  working  point ^^  being  one-third 
less  than  the  greatest  velocity  of  the  water,  for  wheels 
of  the  following  size: 


Diameters,  in  feet  and  inches. 

Head. 

2 

2i 

3 

3i 

4 

4i 

6 

5i 

6 

6i 

7 

n 

8 

4 

122 

98 

~81 

70 

61 

54 

49 

44 

40 

37 

35 

33 

30 

5 

137 

109 

91 

78 

68 

60 

54 

49 

45 

42 

39 

36 

34 

6 

149 

120 

100 

85 

75 

66 

60 

54 

50 

46 

42 

40 

37 

7 

160 

129 

107 

92 

81 

71 

64 

58 

53 

49 

46 

43 

40 

8 

173 

138 

115 

98 

86 

76 

69 

62 

57 

53 

49 

46 

43 

9 

184 

147 

122 

105 

92 

81 

73 

66 

61 

56 

52 

49 

46 

10 

194 

154 

128 

110 

97 

86 

77 

70 

64 

59 

55 

51 

48 

11 

203 

162 

135 

115 

101 

90 

81 

73 

67 

62 

57 

54 

50 

12 

212 

169 

141 

121 

106 

94 

84 

77 

70 

65 

60 

56 

53 

13 

220 

176 

147 

126 

110 

98 

88 

80 

73 

67 

63 

59 

55 

14 

229 

183 

153 

131 

114 

102 

91 

83 

76 

70 

65 

61 

57 

15 

237 

189 

158 

135 

118 

105 

94 

86 

79 

72 

67 

63 

59 

16 

245 

196 

163 

140 

122 

109 

98 

89 

81 

75 

70 

65 

61 

17 

252 

201 

168 

144 

126 

112 

100 

91 

84 

77 

72 

67 

63 

18 

260 

207 

173 

148 

130 

115 

103 

94 

86 

80 

74 

69 

65 

19 

266 

213 

177 

152 

133 

118 

106 

97 

88 

82 

76 

71 

66 

20 

274 

219 

182 

156 

137 

121 

109 

100 

91 

84 

78 

73 

68 

21 

281 

224 

187 

160 

140 

124 

112 

102 

•93 

86 

80 

75 

70 

22 

288 

229 

191 

164 

143 

127 

114 

105 

95 

88 

82 

76 

72 

23 

294 

234 

195 

167 

146 

131 

117 

107 

97 

90 

84 

78 

73 

24 

300 

239|199 

170 

149 

133 

119 

109 

99 

92 

85 

79 

74 

25 

307 

245204 

175 

153 

136 

121 

111 

102 

94 

87 

82 

76 

26 

313 

249:208 

178 

156 

138 

124 

113 

104 

96 

89 

83 

78 

27 

318 

254:212 

182 

159 

141 

127 

116 

106 

98 

91 

85 

79 

28 

324 

259216 

185 

162 

144 

129 

118 

108 

100 

92 

86 

81 

29 

330 

2631219 

188 

164 

146 

131 

120 

110 

101 

94 

88 

82 

30 

335 

268  223 

191 

167 

149  134 

123 

112 

103 

95 

89 

84 

AND   MILLWRIGHT'S  ASSISTANT. 


55 


A  TABLE 

Of  the  number  of  inches  of  Water  necessary  to  drive  one 
run  of  StoneSj  with  all  the  requisite  machinery  for 
grist  and  saw  mills,  which  will  he  found  convenient  for 
all  practical  pur jposes.  Under  heads  of  water  from  4 
to  30  feet. 


Height 
of  head, 

Size  of  stone, 
in  feet. 

Horse 
power. 

Horse 
power. 

Number  of  saws  being  one. 

in  feet. 

4i 

4 

4 

558 

460 

6 

5 

The  same  quantity  of  wa- 

6 

363 

300 

,,, 

ter  that  is  here  used  for  a 

6 

311 

250 

four-foot  stone  is  sufficient 

7 

245 

200 

... 

for  one  saw;   and  where  a 

8 

190 

160 

greater    number  of    either 

9 

163 

130 

... 

saws  or  stones  are  required, 

10 

137 

112 

you  should  double  the  quan- 

11 

122 

102 

tity   in    proportion    to  the 

12 

107 

89 

number,  as  in  the  case  of 

13 

95 

80 

four  run  of  stones  ;  you  re- 

14 

83 

70 

quire  four  wheels,  with  the 

15 

75 

62 

... 

same  number  of  inches  for 

16 

68 

57 

... 

each  size  stone,  as  per  table. 

17 

62 

51 

But,  in  all  cases,  for  mer- 

18 

57 

47 

chant  flouring  mills,  you  re- 

19 

52 

44 

... 

quire  an  extra  wheel,  which 

20 

48 

41 

all  the  machinery  should  be 

21 

45 

37 

attached  to,  with  about  one- 

22 

43 

35 

half  the  power  as  calculated 

23 

39 

32 

for  one  run  of  4  J  feet  stones. 

24 

37 

30 

... 

25 

35 

29 

26 

32 

27 

27 

31 

26 

... 

28 

29 

24 

29 

28 

23 

... 

30 

26 

22 

Note. — A  horse  power  is  considered  equal  to  33,000  lbs. 
raised  one  foot  high. 


56 


THE  AMERICAN  MILLER 


OYEESHOT  OR  BREAST  WHEELS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  required  length  of 
overshot  or  breast  wheels,  on  falls  from  10  to  30  feet, 
to  drive  from  one  to  four  run  of  four  and  a  half  feet 
stones,  with  all  the  necessary  machinery  for  a  merchant 
flouring  mill.  The  column  marked  "  Fair'  shows  the 
number  of  feet  fall  on  the  breast  wheel,  or  the  diameter 
of  the  overshot. 


Diameter 

Number  of  run  of  stones. 

of  overshot 
in  fall. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

length 
of  wheel 

twice. 

3  times. 

4  times. 

Multiply  the  number  of 

in  feet. 

run  required  by  the  length 

10 

7 

as  stated  in  the  table. 

11 

12 

5i 

Example  : 

13 

What  should  the  length 

14 

5 

of  either  a  breast  or  an  over- 

15 

4} 

shot  wheel  be,  to  drive  3  run 

16 

f 

of  stones,   on  a  fall  of  18 

17 

feet  ?     Look  at  18  feet,  the 

18 

4 

height  of  the  head;    then 

19 

3| 

we    have    opposite  4   feet 

20 

H 

for  1    run,    which,    multi- 

21 

H 

plied   by    3,    produces   12 

22 

H 

feet,  the  length  required. 

23 

3 

The  same  quantity  of  wa- 

24 

3 

ter  used  on  the  combination 

25 

2| 

reaction  wheel  will  suit  the 

26 

2| 

breast  and  overshot,  begin- 

27 

^ 

ning  at  10  feet  head. 

28 

n 

29 

^ 

20 

2i 

AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  57 

It  is  desirable  that  the  millwriglit  should  possess  easy 
rules,  which  will  answer  the  purpose  of  practice  rather 
than  theory.  The  first  table  will  be  found  acceptable ; 
as  it  gives  the  velocity  for  all  the  wheels  of  the  reac- 
tion and  combination  principle,  where  the  water  is 
discharged,  as  it  should  be,  at  the  centre. 


HOWD'S  IMPEOYED  DIEECT  ACTION 
WATER-WHEEL, 

With  directions  for  using  tlie  same,  Z>y  S.  B.  Ho  WD. 

This  is  a  wheel  which,  when  properly  located,  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  mills  of  all  kinds,  working  the  water 
on  the  tourhillion  principle,  being  the  whirling  vortex, 
or  better  known  as  reaction  principle. 

Its  superiority  over  the  old-fashioned  reaction  wheel 
consists  in  applying  the  water  on  the  wheel  at  the  verge 
and  discharging  it  at  the  centre,  by  which  you  use  the 
wheel  as  a  lever  of  the  first  kind,  instead  of  applying 
the  water  at  the  centre  and  discharging  it  at  the  verge, 
as  by  the  old-fashioned  reaction,  by  which  its  power  is 
reduced  to  the  lever  of  the  third  kind,  and,  as  a  natural 
consequence,  takes  as  much  more  water  to  perform  the 
same  business  as  the  difierence  in  the  mechanical  prin- 
ciples of  the  lever  vary  from  each  other. 

This  wheel  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  on  low 
sluggish  streams,  where  back  water  is  prevalent.  We 
here  give  a  draft  of  the  wheel,  made  by  Stephen  AU^^ 


58  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

and  used  by  him,  with  directions  for  making  the  same, 
by  Mr.  Howd,  the  original  inventor. 


DIRECTIONS 

For  making  the  several  parts  of  Howd^ s  Latest  Improved 

Water-  Wheel,  and  setting  it  up. 

Submerge  the  wheel  so  that  no  part  of  it  will  be 
above  the  water  in  low  water.  The  stepping  should  be 
concave  and  convex,  the  concave  in  the  shaft.  The 
stepping  should  be  from  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  the 
convex  should  be  made  of  hard  maple,  well  seasoned ; 
make  it  in  a  proper  shape,  then  let  it  soak  in  tallow  at 
least  three  days,  blood  warm ;  let  the  tallow  cool  before 
you  take  it  out;  then  bore  several  three-eighth  holes,  be- 
ginning without  the  knot,  in  two  or  three  places,  upon 
a  curvilinear  line  running  to  the  periphery  of  the  step; 
fill  them  with  bar  lead;  make  the  concave  of  cast  iron 
highly  polished. 

The  disk  should  be  made  of  two-inch  plank,  double- 
face  it  on  both  sides,  and  firmly  pin  them  together. 
Spot  it  on  the  under  side  in  the  centre,  bolt  it  fast  to  the 
flange  of  the  eye  on  the  upper  side,  then  hang  it  on  the 
shaft,  on  a  fe,lse  step ;  scribe  the  top  and  bottom,  work 
off  the  top,  strike  your  circle  for  the  out  edge  of  the 
risers,  work  it  off  bevelling  under  half  inch ;  lay  put  the 
places  for  the  risers,  unhang  it,  turn  it  over,  work  off 
tlie  bottom,  turn  it  back,  put  on  the  risers;  let  in  the 


AND  millwright's  ASSISTANT.  59^ 

laps  of  the  lower  rims  of  the  water-wheel ;  bore  for  the 
bolts  that  hold  the  wheel  to  the  risers,  mark  the  cants, 
and  let  them  by. 

The  directions  given  above  are  intended  where  an  iron 
shaft,  iron  eye  and  flange  are  used,  whereby  the  disk  is 
attached  to  the  shafts. 

When  a  wooden  shaft  is  used,  the  form  of  making 
the  disk  and  attaching  it  to  the  shaft  should  be  varied. 
Dress  your  planks  on  one  side  and  pin  them  together 
slightly,  then  work  on  some  plank  from  four  to  six 
inches  thick,  on  the  under  side  in  the  centre,  at  least 
one  half  the  diameter  of  the  disk,  bevelled  up  to  an 
edge,  and  firmly  pin  the  whole  together. 

Hang  the  disk  with  reference  to  the  under  side.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  disk  should  be  hung  as  low  down 
on  the  shaft  as  possible,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
prevent  it  from  working  up  and  down ;  in  order  to  do 
this  efficiently,  four  or  more  straps  of  iron  with  a  hook 
on  one  end,  should  be  firmly  spiked  on  to  the  shaft  with 
hooks  as  low  down  as  you  wish  to  hand  the  bottom  of 
the  disk,  then  wedge  it  from  the  upper  side  and  fasten 
the  wedges  in  by  means  of  pins  inserted  into  the  shaft 
through  the  upper  end  of  the  disk  and  through  the 
wedges  on  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  then  work 
off  the  top  and  periphery,  as  above  described. 

The  above  directions  would  require  a  model  of  the 
wheel  and  its  parts,  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  con- 
structing it,  without  which  no  millwright  who  may  not 
be  acquainted  with  the  wheel  should  be  expected  to 
construct  one  perfectly. 


60  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

The  draft  accompanying  this  article  gives  a  full  view 
of  the  wheel  with  the  exception  of  the  disk  or  top  part. 
As  to  the  number  of  buckets  necessary  for  a  wheel,  it  is 
left  entirely  to  the  option  of  the  millwright,  as  experi- 
ence teaches  that  the  more  water  you  wish  to  discharge, 
the  more  buckets  will  be  necessary — from  eight  to 
twenty-four.  Mr.  Howd  recommends  the  number  of 
schutes  in  a  wheel  of  seven  and  eight  feet  in  diameter, 
to  be  twenty-four. 


HENRY  YANDEWATER'S  WATEE-WHEEL. 

This  wheel  is  offered  to  the  milling  public  at  Jagger, 
Tredwell  &  Perry's  Eagle  Foundry,  Albany,  New  York, 
who  manufacture  it  to  order,  suiting  all  kinds  of  water- 
powers,  from  heads  of  five  to  twenty-eight  feet  fall.  This 
invention  of  a  water-wheel,  for  either  flouring  or  saw  mills, 
is  of  great  importance  to  the  milling 'public,  as  it  will 
be  seen,  by  the  accompanying  table,  that  it  equals  in 
power  the  overshot  wheel  in  locations  where  many,  who 
have  no  knowledge  of  this  wheel,  would  place  the  over- 
shot with  the  supposition  that  they  had  the  best  kind 
that  could  be  used.  By  examining  the  hydrodynamic 
principle  of  the  wheel,  they  will  readily  admit  the  cor- 
rectness of  this  statement.  From  the  operation  and 
practical  working  of  this  improvement,  we  feel  assured  of 
our  own  correctness  on  the  subject.  The  power  of  water 
by  direct  action,  combined,  as  it  is,  with  the  turbine 
principle,  renders  a  combination  of  the  two  greatest 


AND   MILLWRIGHT  S   ASSISTANT. 


61 


known  powers  of  water  as  a  fluid  in  the  science  of  hy- 
drodynamics. This  wheel  is  made  in  the  most  durable 
manner,  being  constructed  entirely  of  cast  and  wrought 
iron.  Having  personally  examined  the  pattern-list  of 
the  Eagle  Foundry,  I  found  it  well  supplied  with  all 
kinds  of  patterns,  particularly  suited  for  millers  and 
millwrights  to  select  from. 

All  those  wishing  information  respecting  the  right  to 
use  this  wheel,  may  address  the  inventor,  147  Pearl 
street,  Albany,  New  York. 


This  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  wheel.  A,  showing  the 
outside  and  inside  of  the  buckets  ;  and  B,  the  inside  form,  or 
schutes.  The  arrow  indicates  the  course  in  which  the  water  is 
taken  to  the  wheel. 

6 


62 


THE  AMERICAN   MILLER. 


HENRY  VANDEWATER'S  WATER-WHEEL. 


Head  of 
water. 

4  foot  wheel, 

using  61  inches 

of  water,  will 

grind, 

5  foot  wheel, 

using  108  inch. 

of  water,  will 

grind, 

6  foot  wheel, 

using  225  inches 

of  water,  will 

grind, 

7  foot  wheel, 

using  400  iDches 

of  water,  will 

grind, 

Feet 

Bushels  wheat 
per  hour. 

Bushels  wheat 
per  hour. 

Bushels  wheat 
per  hour. 

Bushels  wheat 
per  hour. 

5 

3 

5 

12 

21 

6 

4 

7 

16 

28 

7 

5 

9 

20 

35 

8 

6 

11 

24 

42 

9 

7 

13 

28 

49 

10 

8 

15 

32 

56 

11 

9 

17 

36 

63 

12 

10 

19 

40 

70 

13 

11 

21 

44 

77 

14 

12 

23 

48 

84 

15 

13 

25 

52 

91 

16 

14 

27 

56 

98 

17 

15 

29 

60 

105 

18 

16 

31 

64 

112 

19 

17 

33 

68 

119 

20 

18 

35 

72 

126 

21 

19 

37 

76 

133 

22 

20- 

39 

80 

140 

23 

21 

41 

84 

147 

24 

22 

43 

88 

154 

25 

23 

45 

92 

161 

26 

24 

47 

96 

168 

27 

25 

49 

100 

175 

28 

26 

51 

104 

182 

PART    SECOND. 

EEMARKS  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  GRAINS, 

Which  form  the  Staple  Breadstvffs  of  the  United  States. 

There  is  no  country  on  this  globe  which  is  so  well 
adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat  and  Indian  corn 
as  the  fertile  soil  of  the  United  States^ — the  quality  of 
which  seems  to  be  highly  impregnated  with  those  nu- 
tritious substances  so  necessary  to  the  production  of 
these  two  cereal  grains.  Consequently,  the  high  repu- 
tation which  American  breadstuffs  sustain  in  foreign 
markets  enables  the  American  miller  to  rival  all  com- 
petition in  the  manufacture  of  breadstuffs,  either  in 
quality  or  quantity;  as  the  surplus  quantity  of  grain, 
annually  grown  in  the  United  States,  bids  fair  to  sur- 
pass all  the  dependencies  of  European  cultivation. 

Not  many  years  ago,  and  as  late  as  the  year  1839, 
large  quantities  of  grain  were  imported  from  Europe  to 
the  United  States,  and  sold  to  good  account, — being 
manufactured  in  the  Atlantic  cities.  At  the  period  re- 
ferred to,  the  "  Great  West''  was  comparatively  un- 
known, and  the  boundary  of  western  civilization  was 


64 

supposed  to  exist,  by  our  Eastern  brethren,  in  rather  a 
limited  degree,  somewhere  within  the  confines,  of  the 
state  of  Illinois — it  being  but  about  four  years  previous 
that  it  was  exchanged  from  savage  wilds  to  the  beautiful 
and  cultivated  home  of  the  agriculturist,  which  it  now 
presents.  But,  such  is  the  progress  of  American  enter- 
prise, with  the  advantages  held  out  by  the  general  go- 
vernment to  the  actual  settler,  in  disposing  of  the  public 
lands  at  the  low  price  of  one  dollar  and  a  quarter  per 
acre,  in  the  different  states,  those  lands,  in  a  few  years, 
have  increased  from  100  to  500  per  cent,  from  first  cost, 
according  to  their  location.  This  is  what  enables  the 
American  farmer  not  only  to  drive  all  competition  from 
our  shores,  but  to  compete  successfully  in  ,the  markets 
of  Europe  with  our  foreign  rival ;  and  settles  the  fact, 
beyond  a  doubt,  that  America  is  destined  to  be  the 
granary  of  the  world. 

The  advantages  to  the  miller  are  also  very  great. 
The  Western  states,  whose  luxuriant  soil  produces  the 
finest  quality  of  grains  in  the  world,  also  afford  ample 
water-power  for  the  manufacture  of  the  same,  which 
constitutes  a  mutual  benefit  both  to  the  farmer  and  mil- 
ler,— as  it  makes  a  home-market  for  the  grain  of  the 
latter ;  and  there  is  no  branch  of  business  which  the 
farmer  receives  so  much  benefit  from,  as  he  does  from 
that  which  always  pays  him  the  full  equivalent,  in  cash, 
for  his  produce,  when  delivered  at  the  mill.  And  all 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  flouring-mills  tend, 
also,  to  the  benefit  of  the  producer  of  the  soil,  as  it  re- 
quires less  wheat,  by  one  bushel,  to  the  barrel  of  flour 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  65 

now,  than  formerly,  which  makes  a  profitable  saving 
to  those  of  our  farmers  who  have  their  grain  manufac- 
tured on  their  own  account,  as  many  of  our  Western 
farmers  do. 

We  here  insert  a  statistical  table,  showing  the  amount 
of  grain  grown  in  the  principal  wheat-growing  states  of 
the  Union,  for  the  year  1848  : — 

TABLE  OF  GRAIN  GROWN  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

States.                                       Wheat.  Indian  Corn. 

New  York 15,500,000  17,500,000 

Pennsylvania 15,200,000  21,000,000 

Virginia 12,250,000  38,000,000 

Maryland 5,150,000  8,800,000 

Ohio 20,000,000  70,000,000 

Michigan •. .  10,000,000  10,000,000  - 

Indiana 8,500,000  45,000,000 

Illinois 5,400,000  40,000,000 

Wisconsin 1,600,000  1,500,000 

Missouri 2,000,000  28,000,000 

Iowa 1,300,000  3,500,000 

Texas 1,100,000  1,800,000 

Oregon 1,300,000  1,000,000 

The  foregoing  table  is  from  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents  for  the  year  1848.  In  connection 
with  this  statistical  table,  of  the  amount  of  grain  grown 
in  the  states  referred  to,  we  have  also  prepared  a  like 
table,  showing  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  this 
one  branch  of  business,  which  will  serve  to  give  the 

6* 


THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 


reader  some  conception  of  the  interest  the  milling  busi- 
ness creates  in  the  foUowino;  states  : — 


States.  Capital. 
New  York.... $8,000,000 

Pennsylvania..  4,000,000 

Virginia 3,000,000 

Maryland 1,000,000 

Ohio 5,800,000 

Michigan 4,060,000 

Indiana 2,100,000 


States.  Capital. 

Illinois $1,800,000 

Wisconsin 1,070,000 

Missouri  .....  1,000,000 

Iowa 300,000 

Texas 175,000 

Oregon 20,000 


ON   THE   QUALITY   OF    FRENCH   BURR,  AS   BEST 
ADAPTED  FOR  GRINDINa  WHEAT  AND  CORN. 

There  is  no  description  of  stone,  within  our  know- 
ledge, that  affords  so  much  variety  of  texture,  or  that 
is  so  well  adapted  for  grinding,  as  that  known  as  the 
^'  French  Burr.^'  It  varies  from  the  closest  of  quality 
to  the  openest  and  poorest  of  the  stone  species. 

We  shall  now,  in  this  chapter,  give  the  necessary 
directions,  which,  if  attended  to  strictly,  will  always 
insure  the  miller,  who  should  always  be  the  person  to 
select  the  quality  of  mill-stones  which  will  enable  him 
to  make  the  best  yields,  as  well  as  a  better  quality  of 
flour  than  he  can  otherwise  do  on  any  other  description 
or  selection  of  this  kind  of  stone.  In  the  first  place,  I 
here  remark,  that  every  well-informed,  practical  miller, 


AND  millwright's  ASSISTANT.  67 

of  at  least  ten  years'  experience  in  the  business,  must 
be  well  versed  in  the  different  qualities  of  the  French 
burr,  which,  from  long  practice,  his  experience  tells 
him  that  which  is  likely  to  do  the  best  work,  when  set 
in  order  for  grinding;  he  must  be  acquainted,  also,  with 
what  is  termed  the  best  stock  for  making  mill-stones, 
as  the  stone  is  imported  from  France  in  blocks  of  vari- 
ous sizes,  which  blocks  of  stone  differ  as  much  in  colour 
as  they  do  in  quality.  The  first  thing  to  be  done,  on 
going  to  the  mill-stone  manufactory,  is  to  select  those 
sized  stones  you  want.  By  examination,  you  will  soon 
be  able  to  discover  whether  they  suit  these  directions  or 
not;  if  the  stone  is  of  a  close  appearance,  and  of  a 
white  colour,  without  any  yellowish  spots  in  the  seams, 
or  where  the  blocks  join  each  other  closely  fitted,  and 
the  said  seams  must  be  parallel  with  the  diameter,  as 
by  being  so  they  do  not  break  off  the  edges  of  the 
seams,  by  interfering  with  the  furrows;  also,  do  not 
forget  to  take  a  mill-pick,  and  go  over  every  block, 
which  you  may  do  in  a  few  minutes,  and  if  they  prove 
of  an  equal  hardness,  then  we  should  recommend  that 
run  as  being  a  good  run  of  stones  for  grinding  wheat 
expressly.  If  they  should  prove,  after  trying  them  in 
this  manner,  that  some  parts  of  the  different  blocks  of 
which  the  stone  is  composed  are  rather  softer,  and  in- 
cline to  be  open  about  the  eye,  do  not  take  them,  as  it 
will  take  up  more  time  in  dressing  them,  to  keep  them 
in  a  good  face,  than  two  such  run  as  we  have  first  de- 
scribed. The  clear  white  and  sometimes  variegated 
stock,  resembling   marble,  is  the  best  description  of 


68  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

French  burr,  for  all  uses ;  as  that  kind  of  stock  Is  al- 
ways free  and  hard,  and  holds  an  edge  as  long  as  any 
other  colour.  For  grinding  corn  expressly,  stone  of  a 
different  colour  may  be  used  best  for  this  kind  of  grind- 
ing 'y  I  say  best,  because  it  is  of  a  keener  temper,  and 
not  so  subject  to  soft,  open  places,  as  the  stone  first 
described.  This  kind  of  stock  is  of  a  pale,  bluish  cast, 
and  more  particularly  known  to  millers  for  its  resistance 
of  right  good  steel ;  but,  after  being  dressed,  will  grind 
more  hard  corn  than  any  other  kind  of  stone  in  use. 
Of  stone  of  this  quality,  we  have  dressed  a  large  num- 
ber of  run  for  different  mills,  expressly  for  flouring, 
which,  with  judicious  management,  answer  a  very  good 
purpose ;  but  I  do  not  recommend  this  kind,  as  it  re- 
quires a  miller  of  good  judgment  to  superintend  in 
dressing  them ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  if  they  are  al- 
lowed to  get  at  all  smooth,  they  are  apt  to  heat,  as  well 
as  grind  wheat  oily.  In  the  next  place,  if  they  are 
dressed  at  all  rough,  they  will  make  very  specky  flour, 
and  grind  harsh, — two  evils  not  to  be  tolerated  about  a 
flouring-mill ;  further,  the  nature  of  this  kind  of  burr 
is  of  a  dead,  heavy  texture,  and  entirely  unfit  for  steam- 
mills.  Where  the  power  is  at  all  varying  or  unsteady, 
this  kind  of  burr  imparts  to  the  flour  a  kind  of  grayish 
cast. 

There  is  also  another  description  of  burr-stock  which 
I  shall  here  notice,  and  the  worst  of  all  others  to  the 
miller  who  has  been  so  unfortunate  as  to  purchase  such 
stones  with  the  least  reasonable  hope  that  he  has  got 
good  ones.     This  is  a  burr  of  a  yellowish  colour,  called 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  69 

by  some  the  Fox  burr,  and  not  at  all  badly  named,  as  it 
is  very  deceptive  in  its  appearance.  In  dressing  this 
kind  of  stone,  it  resembles  a  knotty  nature,  with  a  good 
inclination  to  curl  as  you  strike  it  with  the  pick.  After 
you  have  ground  with  it  for  the  space  of  twenty-four 
hours,  take  it  up,  and  it  has  all  the  appearance  of  being 
varnished  with  the  best  copal  varnish,  which  makes  the 
miller  sigh  for  ^^  the  good  old  days  of  Adam  and  Eve,'' 
when  the  gray  Laurel  Hill  Rock  Stone  were  in  fashion, 
or  what  the  Virginian  miller  calls  ^^  Nigger  Heads,'' 
either  of  which  is  preferable  to  the  last  described  French 
Burr. 

Having  treated  of  the  French  burr,  we  shall  now  di- 
rect our  remarks  to  that  of  our  American  production, 
the  Eaccoon  Burr. 


ON  THE  RACCOON  BURR   STONE. 

This  description  of  stone  is  of  American  production, 
and  its  geological  nativity  is  confined  to  the  State  of 
Ohio,  not  being  known  elsewhere.  Its  locality  is  in 
Muskingum  and  adjoining  counties,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  "Flint  Bidge."  This  stone  is  a  description  of 
burr,  and  makes  a  very  good  substitute  for  the  imported 
or  French  burr.  During  my  residence  in  the  State  of 
Ohio,  I  was  employed  by  the  Messrs.  Adams,  of  Mus- 
kingum county,  who  do  a  large  business  in  flouring, 
being  the  most  extensive  millers  m  that  part  of  the 


70 

State.  One  of  their  mills,  in  which  the  author  was 
employed,  was  of  six  run  of  stones,  all  of  them  of  Rac- 
coon burr,  and,  having  dressed  them,  the  only  conclu- 
sions I  drew,  from  the  work  the  stones  made,  was,  that 
they  required  to  be  dressed  oftener  than  the  generality 
of  the  French  burr.  The  reputation  of  this  mill  then 
stood  high  in  New  York  for  making  a  good  article  of 
superfine  flour.  The  difference  in  the  price  between  the 
Raccoon  and  imported  being  from  35  to  45  per  cent, 
cheaper.  They  are  put  together  in  blocks  and  fitted  up 
as  the  French  burr,  and  will  answer  a  good  purpose  for 
grist  mills,  or  for  grinding  coarse  grains,  such  as  grist- 
grinding  generally  consists  of,  for  the  use  of  the  farmer. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  PREPARING  NEW  STONES  FOR 
GRINDING. 

While  the  mill  is  in  progress  of  building,  the  stones 
may  be  prepared  by  the  miller  who  is  to  have  charge  of 
the  running  of  the  mill  when  completed,  as  no  other 
than  the  head  miller  should  direct  the  operation  of  put- 
ting in  the  dress ;  and  any  fault  in  their  operation  he 
should  be  held  individually  accountable  for. 

It  being  necessary  to  take  the  stone  out  of  wind  before 
the  dress  is  laid  out,  it  may  be  done  in  the  following 
manner  :  First,  prepare  yourself  with  a  good  tram  staff 
of  the  following  shape ;  have  your  staff  dressed  four 
inches  wide,  with  a  hole  through  it  exactly  in  the  centre  j 


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72  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

the  spindle  which  the  staff  is  suspended  on;  then  the 
miller  must  centre  his  spindle  from  the  circumference  of 
the  stone,  instead  of  centreing  it  by  the  eye,  as  many  do, 
supposing  that  the  eye  is  always  in  the  centre  of  the 
stone,  which  is  not  always  the  case. 

Being  prepared  now  to  use  paint  for  the  staff,  which 
may  be  prepared  by  mixing  2  ozs.  of  either  Spanish 
brown  or  Venetian  red;  the  latter  is  preferable,  as  it 
shows  on  the  stone  better  with  spirits  of  turpentine  or 
soft  water.  By  means  of  the  screw  at  the  top  of  the 
spindle,  you  allow  the  staff  to  come  down  so  as  to 
slightly  touch  the  stone,  by  which  you  work  off  all  the  high 
places,  until  the  stone  is  perfectly  out  of  wind,  and  m^y 
be  known  to  be  so  when  it  paints  the  face  all  over 
exactly  alike.  For  new  stone,  the  eye  blocks  should  be 
worked  about  a  sixteenth  below  the  rest  of  the  face. 
The  next  part  of  the  work,  being  to  lay  out  and  draft  a 
proper  dress,  may  be  done  as  follows :  Before  we  dismiss 
the  subject  of  taking  millstones  out  of  wind,  we  will 
just  refer  to  another  mode ;  namely,  the  using  of  three 
angles  laid  out  on  the  surface  of  the  stone,  and  each 
angle  intersecting  the  other,  which  forms  a  centre  by 
working  the  lowest  angle  shown  on  the  stone  first  to  a 
good  face,  and  working  the  others  down  to  it.  This  is 
a  mode  we  cannot  recommend,  as  it  consumes  nearly  as 
long  again  to  prepare  a  stone  with  this  plan  as  it  does 
with  the  tram  staff,  consequently  is  much  more  expen- 
sive, and  its  principles  belong  to  a  past  generation,  but 
are  mechanically  correct,  and  answers  in  places  where  a 
tram  staff  cannot  be  got  readily. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  73 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  LAYING  OUT  THE  DRESS  IN  MILL- 
STONES. 

The  first  thing  we  shall  notice  under  this  head  is  the 
amount  of  draft  necessary  for  your  leading  furrows. 
This  must  be  varied  according  to  the  size  and  quality  of 
your  stone.  Stones  that  are  close  require  more  than 
open  ones,  consequently  the  miller's  own  experience 
must  direct  him  to  define  the  diflerence  between  close 
and  open  millstones,  knowing  that  open  stones  have  a 
greater  amount  of  draft  than  close  ones.  But  I  have 
found,  from  my  own  experience,  that  there  is  also 
another  essential  point  to  be  considered,  that  is,  the 
particular  dress  you  use,  as  in  no  quality  of  stone,  either 
close  or  open,  should  as  much  draft  be  given  to  a  stone 
of  any  size  where  a  circle  dress  is  used,  as  may  be  given 
where  the  dress  is  straight.  My  rule  is,  for  a  straight 
dress,  in  close  stone,  an  inch  to  the  foot  of  the  diameter, 
and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  with  a  curve.  After  you 
have  made  up  your  mind  on  the  amount  of  draft  which 
you  intend  to  use,  set  a  piece  of  board  in  the  eye  of  your 
stone,  which  for  convenience  we  will  call  a  draft  board; 
then  if  you  wish  to  use  four  inches  draft,  set  your  di- 
viders four  inches,  and  after  you  have  found  the  exact 
centre  of  your  stone,  place  the  point  of  your  dividers  in 
that  centre,  and  strike  a  circle  on  the  board,  called  the 
draft  circle.  This  is  the  first  preparatory  step  of  import- 
ance, the  next  being  to  know  what  way  your  stone  is  to 
run,  whether  with  the  sun  or  contrary :  if  with  the  sun, 

7 


74 

you  turn  your  face  towards  it,  going  the  contrary  way 
round  the  stone,  and  by  placing  one  end  of  your  pattern 
to  the  draft  circle,  and  the  other  end  on  the  periphery 
of  the  stone,  you  obtain  the  desired  draft  for  your  lead- 
ing furrows.  The  proper  rule  for  finding  the  distance 
for  each  of  the  leading  furrows,  is  to  divide  the  number 
of  quarters  wanted,  by  the  circumference,  and  the  pro- 
duct is  the  distance  the  leading  furrows  are  apart.  Set 
your  dividers  according  to  the  product,  and  space  off 
your  quarters  before  striking  out  your  leading  furrows, 
which  will  show  at  once  whether  your  calculation  is 
right  or  not.  When  your  furrows  are  all  made,  you  may 
then  complete  the  face  of  your  stone  for  grinding  grain, 
by  making  a  perfectly  true  face  on  the  stones  before  they 
are  turned  down. 

If  your  stones  require  to  be  driven  contrary  to  the 
sun,  you  lay  out  the  dress  by  going  around  the  stone  in 
the  same  direction  with  the  sun.  This  rule  is  very  sim- 
ple, and  capable  of  saving  many  mistakes  usually  made 
by  millers,  in  carelessly  drafting  the  dress  to  run  the 
wrong  way. 


A  SPECIAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  DIFFERENT  MILL- 
STONE DRESSES  NOW  IN  USE,  WITH  PRACTICAL 
REMARKS  ON  THEIR  DIFFERENT  ACTION. 

The  millstone  dress  is  that  draft  given  to  the  furrows, 
for  the  purpose  of  discharging  the  meal  from  the  stone, 
when  properly  ground. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  75 

The  proper  draft  or  dress,  to  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
is  a  matter  which  involves  a  great  difference  of  opinion, 
both  with  millers  and  millwrights.  Generally,  the  for- 
mer shapes  his  ideas  from  personal  observation  in  the 
grinding  of  the  millstone,  and  the  latter  from  theory 
only ;  whereas,  by  uniting  both  of  these  essential  prin- 
ciples, more  conclusive  evidence  would  be  obtained,  as 
to  the  proper  dress  or  draft  necessary  for  the  millstone. 

The  first  principle  is  the  discharge ;  the  next  is  the 
way  to  draft  that  discharge  so  that  the  stone,  when 
grinding,  shall  receive  its  proportional  quantity  on  its 
entire  surface,  from  the  eye  to  the  skirt.  The  difficulty 
to  contend  with,  in  this  particular,  is  the  variation  of 
circular  motion  that  the  grain  encounters,  in  passing 
from  the  eye  to  the  place  of  discharge ;  for,  in  every 
superficial  inch  of  surface  from  the  eye  to  the  periphery, 
the  circular  motion  increases  as  the  circumference  grows 
larger,  until  the  meal  is  discharged  frofn  the  stone.  So, ' 
from  my  own  personal  experience,  I  have  found  this 
the  most  difficult  part  of  our  trade  to  improve,  from  the 
fe,ct  that  the  proper  draft  of  the  dress,  in  a  millstone, 
is  of  more  importance  to  the  miller  than  it  is  generally 
supposed  to  be,  for  the  following  reasons :  in  the  first 
place,  mills  built  on  light  streams  suffer  more  for  want 
of  a  perfect  knowledge  of  this  important  part  of  the 
miller's  art,  than  those  situated  on  large  streams.  All 
kinds  of  millstone  dresses  that  curve,  require  more 
power  to  drive  them  than  furrows  that  have  no  curve ; 
and  the  more  curve  or  circle,  the  greater  amount  of 
power  you  want  to  drive  the  stone.     As  millers  who 


76  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

use  circle  dresses  in  preference  to  all  others,  will  require 
abundant  proof  on  this  subject,  we  hope  to  give  it  to 
them ;  and  if  we  succeed  in  enlightening  them  on  the 
main  error  of  all  circular  dresses,  all  we  ask  of  them 
is  to  adopt  what  science  and  practical  experience  prove 
to  be  the  better  mode. 

To  illustrate  this  subject  more  fully,  we  take  a  mill- 
stone of  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  mo- 
tion of  175  to  180  revolutions  per  minute,  and  prepare 
it  for  flouring  with  a  circular  dress,  with  furrows  on  a 
circle  of  once  and  a  half  the  diameter  of  the  stone,  I 
pitch  on  this  particular  dress  to  illustrate  my  views,  bs 
eight-tenths  of  all  the  circular  dresses  I  have  examined 
are  drafted  on  this  curve.  Suppose,  then,  that  this  stone 
has  a  draft  at  the  eye  of  the  lowest  number  of  inches 
generally  given,  being  three  and  a  half  inches  at  the 
centre,  I  ask,  what  will  the  angle  be,  that  the  furrows 
will  pass  each  other,  from  the  eye  to  the  periphery  ? 
We  suppose,  that  in  such  a  draft  above  described,  the 
angle  of  the  furrows  are  equal ;  this  should  not  be  the 
case,  when  we  consider  that  the  central  force  increases 
as  the  distance  from  the  centre  increases,  caused  by  the 
circumference  of  every  superficial  inch  of  the  stone  in- 
creasing. We  ask,  then,  how  are  you  to  bring  the  same 
amount  of  meal  on  this  increasing  velocity  of  the  skirts 
of  the  stone,  that  you  have  at  the  centre,  when  your 
draft,  in  both  parts  of  your  stone,  are  alike  demonstrated 
by  purely  scientific  principles,  being  governed  by  the 
laws  of  circular  motion,  on  the  same  principle  as  above 
described  ?     We  affirm,  that  at  least  one-twentieth  of 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  77 

the  pressure  used  on  a  stone  of  four  and  a  half  feet 
diameter^  making  175  revolutions  per  minute,  grind- 
ing 15  bushels  per  hour,  might  be  dispensed  with,  or 
avoided,  if  the  draft  or  dress  was  applied  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  decrease  as  the  central  force  increased, 
which  would  allow  the  angle  of  draft  with  which  their 
furrows  cross  each  other,  in  inverse  proportion  to  their 
diameters.  If  the  twentieth  of  the  pressure  need  not 
be  used;  that  is  just  one-twentieth  of  the  power  saved, 
with  at  least  an  equal  advantage  gained  of  five  per  cent, 
in  the  quality  of  the  flour ;  as  the  less  pressure  used  in 
manufacturing,  the  better  the  flour  after  it  is  manufac- 
tured.    This  most  all  will  admit. 

With  this  dress,  more  time  is  consumed  in  keeping 
your  stone  in  proper  order,  than  should  be,  as  all  ex- 
perienced millers  will  readily  admit.  The  skirts  of  the 
stone  with  circular  dresses  are  always  lower  than  either 
the  breast  or  eye ;  and  the  smaller  the  circle  used,  the 
greater  this  difficulty  will  exist,  it  being  impossible  to 
give  the  skirt  as  much  of  the  meal,  with  this  dress,  as 
its  relative  proportions  require.  Where  a  stone  four  and 
a  half  feet  in  diameter  is  grinding,  say  15  bushels  per 
hour  of  wheat,  and  running  night  and  day,  in  twenty- 
four  hours  from  the  time  it  was  started,  the  heat  caused 
by  the  great  pressure  used  becomes  intense,  as  it  forms 
a  scalding  temperature,  which  greatly  affects  the  quality 
of  the  flour.  To  test  this  principle  more  fully,  I  have 
compared  the  degrees  of  the  temperature  of  the  meal 
with  this  dress,  and  what  is  called  the  old-fashioned 


78  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

straight  quarter,  as  the  meal  issued  from  the  stone,  and 
found  the  following  result : — 

The  circle  dress  ground  the  warmest  by  ten  to  twenty 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit;  both  the  same  kind  and  sized 
stone  grinding  about  the  same  quantity.  On  two  sepa- 
rate examinations  of  the  heat  of  the  meal,  the  stone 
with  the  circle  dress  had  18  leading  furrows,  and  the 
straight  quarter  16  ditto. 

Now,  by  this  experiment  alone,  I  do  not  say  that  this 
quarter,  or  straight  dress,  is  the  one  I  should  recom- 
mend all  millers  to  use.  No,  by  no  means ;  as  the  dis- 
proportion in  the  draft  of  its  short  furrows  condemns  it 
also.  But  the  experiment  went  to  prove  its  superiority 
over  the  circle,  which  was  readily  discovered  in  the 
lively,  rich  colour  of  the  flour,  and  the  clean  appearance 
of  the  offal. 

The  different  dresses,  as  represented  on  plate  2,  are 
all  got  up  from  those  two, — the  circle  and  straight  quar- 
ter dress;  and  I  must  say,  that  their  inventors  were 
actuated  more  by  a  love  of  variety  and  novelty,  than 
from  the  dictates  of  practical  experience.  For  that 
reason,  we  shall  not  take  time  to  notice  them  at  further 
length  than  described  in  plate  2,  —  considering  it 
no  advantage  to  the  miller,  although  there  may  be  some 
who  will  value  it  more  than  any  other  dress  represented, 
because  they  have  spent  more  time  in  getting  them  up, 
than  they  have  taken  to  examine  the  error  they  have 
made  by  introducing  a  combination  of  artificial  drafts 
for  millstones,  contrary  to  those  laws  of  circular  motion 


MILLSTONES—QUARTER   DRESS. 

Plate  2.— p.  78. 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  79 

and  central  forces  which  govern  all  kinds  of  millstone 
dresseS;  of  whatever  kind  used. 

We  shall  now  present  that  dress  for  millstones  that 
science  and  experience  show  to  be  best  for  all  sizes  of 
stone  and  varieties  of  central  motion  occasioned  by  the 
revolutions  made  per  minute  of  the  stone.  These  dresses 
are  seen  in  plate  2.  Figs.  1  and  2  represent  a  perfectly 
straight  furrow,  one  inch  and  one-eighth  in  width,  for  a 
stone  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter.  The  number  of 
leading  furrows  should  be  from  16  to  20,  or  21,  if  the 
stone  is  more  than  ordinarily  close ;  I  prefer  21.  Then 
divide  those  quarters  equally  with  another  furrow  each, 
which  will  give  42  whole  furrows,  allowing  the  short 
furrows  to  enter  the  leading  ones  in  close  stones.  This 
dress  may  be  called,  properly,  the  "  new  quarter  dress  /' 
its  superiority  over  the  old  16  quarter  dress  is  apparent 
to  all,  when  we  examine  the  drafts  in  plate  2,  figs.  1 
and  2. 

Millers  who  may  think  that  there  is  too  much  face  on 
the  skirt,  may  safely  increase  the  size  of  their  furrows 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  on  the  skirt,  and  in  very  open 
stones  may  decrease  it  accordingly,  as  well  as  the  num- 
ber of  furrows.  I  have  the  opinion  of  several  of  the 
best  millers  in  the  United  States,  all  agreeing  on  this 
dress  as  being  the  best  in  use.  By  the  use  of  it,  we 
entirely  dispense  with  that  short  furrow  necessarily 
used  in  the  old  16  quarter  dress,  by  giving  the  short 
furrow  in  the  new  quarter  dress  about  the  same  draft  as 
the  second  furrow  in  the  old,  which  serves  to  make  the 
flour  better,  as  less  pressure  is  used  with  the  new  quar- 


80  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

ter  dress  than  with  the  old.  The  short  furrows  in  the 
16  quarter  dress,  the  angle  at  which  they  cross  each 
other  being  too  obtuse  to  admit  of  their  cutting,  as  may 
be  seen  by  fig.  2 ;  the  angle  being  84  degrees  of  draft, 
they  push  the  meal  out,  and  cannot  act  otherwise. 

With  the  new  quarter  dress,  as  described,  I  should 
not  recommend  more  draft  at  the  eye  of  the  stone  than 
three  and  a  half  inches,  where  its  motion  is  from  160  to 
180  revolutions  per  minute,  for  a  stone  of  four  and  a 
half  feet  in  diameter,  with  the  same  proportion,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  stone.  Fig.  1,  four  and  a  half 
feet  stone,  21  quarters.  Fig.  2  represents  a  stone  equal 
to  four  and  a  half  feet,  16  quarters.  PL  3,  stone  same 
size,  dress  on  the  circle  of  the  stone,  with  40  furrows. 


DIRECTIONS   FOR  MAKING  FURROWS  ON  THE   MOST 
APPROVED  PLAN. 

The  manner  in  which  furrows  are  shaped  is  very  im- 
portant, as,  in  discharging  the  meal,  they  will,  if  not 
properly  made,  make  too  many  middlings,  and  allow 
the  bran  to  pass  out  thicker  than  it  ought  to  be. 

The  proper  form,  I  have  found,  for  them,  is  a  perfectly 
true  taper.  From  the  first  edge,  commonly  called  the 
track  edge,  up  to  the  second,  called  the  feather  edge, 
and  of  a  depth  of  three-eighths  of  an  inch  at  the  back  or 
first  edge,  up  to  a  sixteenth  part  of  an  inch  at  the  feather 
edge  of  a  new  stone,  and  not  deeper  than  the  depth  of  a 


MILLSTONE CIRCULAR    DRESS. 

Plate  3.— p.  80. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  81 

good  heavy  crack,  when  your  stones  are  in  perfectly  good 
face  for  flouring. 

Now,  mucli  pains  in  the  mechanical  construction  of 
them  may  be  saved  to  the  young  miller  by  the  use  of  a 
gauge  and  staff.  To  dress  his  furrows  by  the  gauge  is 
simply  the  size  and  shape  of  the  kind  of  furrows  you 
want  to  make,  cut  on  wood,  which  will  assist  you.  To 
make  all  your  furrows  precisely  the  same  depth,  the 
staff  is  a  small,  flat  rule,  four  or  five  inches  long,  by 
which  you  can  apply  paint  to  your  furrows  to  work 
them  even,  by  which  much  time  is  spared,  for  the  paint 
shows  you  all  the  high  places,  so  that  not  one  stroke  of 
the  pick  need  be  lost. 

For  flouring,  your  furrows  require  to  be  as  smooth  as 
the  face,  as  rough  furrows  make  the  flour  specky.  I 
have  heard  millers  object  frequently  to  their  bolts  not 
being  right,  when  the  whole  cause  lay  in  the  rough 
manner  in  which  their  stones  were  dressed. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  STAFFING  AND  CRACKING  THE 
FACE  OF  THE  MILLSTONE. 

Every  three  months  is  as  often  as  necessary  to  dress 
the  furrows,  but  in  a  mill  that  does  a  good  business, 
the  face  of  the  stone  requires  cracking  as  often  as  every 
four  days,  the  stone  running  night  and  day. 

Cracking  the  face,  as  it  is  termed,  is  an  artificial 
mode  of  cutting  the  face  of  a  millstone  in  parallel  lines 
with  the  furrows  by  which  the  bran  is  cleaned ;  conse- 


82  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

quently,  when  well  done,  a  stone  will  grind  a  third 
faster  than  without  the  cracked  face,  and  the  flour  is 
far  superior.  With  stones  cracked  with  about  from  26 
to  30  in  every  superficial  inch  of  the  face,  reason  tells 
us  that  they  need  not  be  pressed  so  close  together.  It 
requires  a  good  deal  of  practice  to  be  perfect  in  this 
part  of  the  miller's  art,  but  by  the  use  of  practice  we 
become  perfect  in  this,  as  well  as  any  other  branch  of 
the  business. 

After  the  stones  are  taken  up  for  the  purpose  of 
sharpening  them,  the  first  thing  the  miller  should  do  is 
to  take  a  soft  sandstone,  which  should  be  kept  for  the 
purpose,  and  rub  the  face  of  the  millstones  all  over  with 
it.  The  object  of  this  is  to  scour  the  face,  which  leaves 
it  in  better  order  to  receive  the  work  you  are  going  to 
put  into  it.  Sweep  them  off  clean,  and  then  apply  your 
staff.  If  your  stone  should  be  higher  about  the  eye  and 
breast,  skin  off  those  places  until  the  staff  fits  tight  all 
over  the  face  of  the  stone,  and  crack  the  balance ;  then 
your  stone  is  ready  for  grinding.  If  you  should  find 
your  stones  in  good  face  when  you  take  them  up,  with 
the  paint  equally  distributed  all  over  the  face  of  the 
stone  alike,  being  the  highest  about  the  eye,  then  the 
stones  are  considered  to  be  in  good  face ;  then  crack  them 
all  over  nicely,  without  breaking  the  face,  which  must  be 
done  with  a  sharp  pick ;  then  apply  a  little  tallow 
around  your  spindle-neck,  and  if  the  spindle  is  loose, 
tighten  it,  and  tram  your  spindle ;  then  you  may  put 
your  stones  down,  as  they  are  in  good  order  for 
grinding. 


AND   MILLWEIGHT's   ASSISTANT.  83 


ON  THE  BEST  SIZE  OF  MILLSTONES  FOR  DIFFERENT 
WATER  POWERS. 

The  proper  size  of  millstones  is  a  subject  of  as  much 
consideration  and  interest  to  the  miller  as  any  other  im- 
provement in  his  business ;  and  the  improvements  which 
late  years  have  discovered  in  this  particular  are  worthy 
of  notice  in  this  work.  When  we  look  back  to  the  days 
of  our  youth,  and  see  what  other  days  have  brought 
forth  in  this  particular,  we  are  astonished  that  the  many 
simple  improvements  of  the  present  day  were  so  long 
unknown. 

Not  many  years  since,  the  size  of  millstones,  as 
thought  best  by  the  first  millwrights  and  millers  in  our 
country,  was  from  ^Ye  to  seven  feet ;  and  numbers  of 
those  same  stones  are  still  in  use,  and  not  grinding  as 
much  per  hour  as  stones  of  less  than  one-half  their 
diameters,  in  mills  constructed  on  the  scientific  prin- 
ciples of  the  age. 

Stones  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter  are  large 
enough  for  any  description  of  water-power,  and  larger 
than  I  should  recommend  for  any  water-power  over  ten 
feet  head  and  fall,  as  four  feet  four  inches  is  large  enough 
to  make,  without  crowding,  50  barrels  of  flour  per  run 
a  day,  which  is  a  good  amount  of  business  for  mills  of 
four  run  of  stone. 

The  great  improvement  in  the  difierence  of  the  size 
of  millstones — first,  consists  of  reducing  the  amount  of 


84  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

power  used  to  drive  such  large  sizes  of  ^tone,  by  cutting 
off  that  great  amount  of  leverage  we  had  to  contend 
against  in  stones  of  from  five  to  seven  feet  in  diameter. 
Also,  by  applying  the  power  so  much  nearer  the  centre, 
by  increasing  the  weight  of  the  running  stone,  by  which 
means  from  twice  to  five  times  the  amount  of  grain  is 
ground  with  a  less  quantity  of  water.  This  improve- 
ment, of  increasing  the  weight  of  the  running  mill- 
stone, is  more  in  accordance  with  true  mechanical  prin- 
ciples of  science,  and  of  more  value  to  the  miller,  as  it 
saves  a  large  amount  of  capital  in  the  purchase  of  mill- 
stones and  the  necessary  machinery  to  put  them  in  mo- 
tion on  the  old  plans  of  mill-building. 

The  advantages  of  increasing  the  weight  of  the  run- 
ner, have  been  fully  tested  at  Chinton,  in  the  State  of 
Michigan,  where  there  is  a  mill  in  successful  operation ; 
the  stones  being  but  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter, 
and  the  amount  which  they  grind  per  run  being  also 
stated. 


PRACTICAL    REMARKS    ON    GRINDING   WHEAT   AND 
CORN. 

To  be  a  good  judge  of  grinding  wheat  for  flouring, 
the  miller  must  be  endowed  with  one  of  the  five  bless- 
ings or  senses  which  nature  has  endowed  mankind  with 
generally, — that  is,  an  acute  sense  of  feeling ;  for,  with- 
out this  sense,  the  miller  is  destitute  of  a  guide  to  grind 
wheat  for  merchant  work,  in  such  manner  as  to  realize 


AND   MILLWRIGHT^S   ASSISTANT.  85 

the  greatest  possible  amount  of  flour  from  the  wheat,  as 
it  requires  but  an  alteration  of  two  degrees  to  make 
a  difference  of  from  one  to  three  pounds  of  flour  in 
the  bushel.  So  it  is  in  the  different  qualities  of  wheat 
which  the  miller  may  have  to  grind,  as  some  qualities 
of  wheat  will  grind  from  one  to  five  degrees  closer  than 
others,  owing,  first,  to  the  order  that  each  sample  may 
be  in  when  ground,  and  secondly,  to  the  particular  spe- 
cies of  wheat.  All  those  causes  must  be  examined  by 
the  miller ;  he  will  then  be  prepared  to  form  a  correct 
judgment,  how  close  the  stone  requires  to  be  set  on 
each  kind  of  wheat ;  as  the  yield  required  from  every 
60  lbs.  of  good  clean  wheat  should  be  such  as  to  pro- 
duce a  barrel  of  superfine  flour  (capable  of  passing  in- 
spection laws)  from  every  240  lbs.  of  merchantable 
wheat,  being  49  lbs.  of  superfine  flour  for  every  60  lbs. 
of  wheat.  This  is  a  closer  yield  than  the  average  of  the 
different  qualities  of  wheat  will  run ;  and  to  manufac- 
ture on  this  yield,  the  stones  require  to  be  kept  in  per- 
fect order.  As  the  millstones  are  the  entire  hey  which 
regulates  the  profits  of  the  miller,  we  think  much  atten- 
tion cannot  be  expended  more  profitably,  than  that  be- 
stowed in  keeping  them  in  proper  order. 

Much  as  I  have  said  on  the  subject  of  millstones,  I 
will  also,  before  leaving  the  subject,  lay  down  a  few 
rules  for  the  benefit  of  the  young  miller,  as  I  have  once 
been  of  that  class  myself,  which  will  enable  him  to  ac- 
quire a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  keeping  the  millstone 
in  proper  order.  The  worst  and  most  easily  detected 
state  a  millstone  can  be  in,  is  when  small  round  and 


86 

hard  pieces  are  discharged,  with  parts  of  the  meal  ground 
close  enough ;  this  is  evidence  enough  that  your  stones 
are  out  of  face,  and  working  entirely  on  some  high  places, 
which  prevent  the  stones  running  close  enough  together 
to  grind  the  meal  all  alike;  they  should  be  instantly 
taken  up,  and  by  laying  on  the  staff  dry  and  moving  it 
gently  over  the  face,  you  will  soon  find  those  high  places, 
which  should  be  skinned  off  until  the  staff  shows  the 
face  to  be  even,  by  fitting  the  stone  tightly  all  over  its 
surface;  which,  after  a  good  rubbing  with  the  burr- 
block,  your  stone  will  be  ready  for  grinding. 

If,  on  taking  up  the  stone  for  examination,  you  should 
find  no  high  places,  but  the  stone  staffing  an  equal  fa^e 
all  over,  then  the  fault  lies  in  the  furrows  being  too 
deep,  which  you  can  remedy  by  filling  up  to  a  proper 
depth  with  cement  made  for  that  purpose.  By  reference 
to  the  index  of  this  work,  you  will  be  informed  how  to 
prepare  it. 

To  grind  corn,  you  want  a  very  heavy  crack  in  the 
face  of  the  millstone,  which  shows  the  necessity  of  hav- 
ing stone  expressly  made  to  order  for  this  particular 
business.  Also,  furrows  answer  better  by  being  a  little 
rounding,  and  double  the  depth  of  the  feather-edge  that 
you  require  for  wheat. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  87 


REMARKS  ON  INDIAN   CORN  AS  AN  ARTICLE  OF 
FOREIGN  CONSUMPTION. 

Corn  is  now  becoming  an  article  of  food  for  thou- 
sands of  the  poor  class  of  people  of  European  countries, 
taking  as  it  does  the  place  of  their  principal  food,  the 
potatoes,  which  of  late  years  have  suffered  from  decay 
so  much  so  as  to  reduce  thousands  of  them  to  famine, 
disease,  and  death.  These,  for  want  of  other  food, 
were  obliged  to  use  the  diseased  potato  until  relieved 
somewhat  from  suffering  starvation  by  the  timely  and 
charitable  aid  rendered  by  the  people  of  the  United 
States  of  America. 

We  say  that  the  corn  of  America  will  undoubtedly 
take  the  place  of  the  potatoes  of  Ireland,  as  food 
for  the  poorer  classes, — it  being,  according  to  learned 
judges,  a  mpre  wholesome  and  a  stronger  diet  than  pota- 
toes. This  will  benefit  the  American  farmers  of  the 
Western  States,  who  raise  such  large  quantities  of  corn, 
and  also  the  American  miller — as  it  will  pay  always  a 
better  profit  than  the  manufacture  of  wheat  into  super- 
fine flour.  The  author  of  this  book  has  recently  in- 
vented a  simple  mode  of  drying  Indian  corn  so  that  it  will 
keep  two  years  in  meal,  barrelled.  For  a  full  descrip- 
tion, reference  may  be  had  to  the  article,  under  its  pro- 
per head. 


88  THE  AMERICAN  MILLER; 


ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  MERCHANT  BOLTS 
FOR  SUPERFINE  FLOUR  ON  THE  OLD  PLAN. 

The  arrangement  that  is  necessary  in  the  constructing 
of  bolts  for  the  merchant  flouring  mill  being  such  as  the 
generality  of  millwrights  do  not  investigate  closely,  is 
apparent  to  those  who  examine  this  subject.  When  we 
consider  the  fact  that  wheat  is  composed  of  a  very  thin 
skin,  filled  with  flour,  which,  if  manufactured  properly, 
ought  to  produce  the  following  qualities :  superfine  flour, 
seconds,  ship  stuff",  and  bran,  in  the  first  place.  Once 
is  enough  to  grind  the  meal  all  must  admit,  but  in  the 
common  way  of  arranging  and  constructing  the  merchant 
bolts,  a  second  grinding  becomes  necessary.  Of  that 
quality  called  middlings,  which,  when  ground  a  second 
time,  the  flour  is  called  fine,  and  is  unfit  for  bread,  as  it 
is  too  dry  to  be* palatable,  which,  if  manufactured  as  it 
should  be,  the  middlings  will  be  too  poor  to  be  fit  for 
any  other  use  than  feed.  We  will  now  describe  a  full 
chest  of  merchant  bolts  on  the  general  arrangement,  or 
old  plan. 

What  is  called  a  full  chest,  consists  of  two  superfine 
reels,  which  are  both  fed  from  the  cooler;  then,  what 
meal  is  left  passes  into  two  other  reels,  immediately 
under,  called  the  return  reels.  But  I  will  here  notice, 
that  only  part  of  those  reels  are  returned  back  to  the 
cooler,  the  rest  of  the  reels  being  all  there,  are  to  com- 
plete the  entire  separation  and  cleansing  of  the  different 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  89 

qualities.  The  numbers  of  the  cloth  used  in  this  chest 
are  as  follows : — The  superfine  reels  are  about  32  inches 
in  diameter,  covered  with  No.  9  cloth ;  the  lower  or  re- 
turn reels,  the  numbers  vary  from  No.  8  (being  the 
finest)  down  to  No.  7,  and  sometimes  less,  for  the  mid- 
dlings, which  are  ground  over  again,  which  will  come 
from  No.  6  or  7,  will  be  too  rich  unless  they  are  ground 
and  bolted  over,  and  even  then  they  will  make  nothing 
better  than  fine  flour;  the  length  of  the  reels  is  about 
18  feet,  with  a  pitch  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  the 
foot.  Such  is  a  description  of  the  merchant  bolts  on 
what  is  called  the  old  plan.  We  shall  now  give  our 
opinion  on  this  mode  of  constructing  bolts.  We  must 
condemn  the  plan,  as  the  middlings  are  too  rich,  and  it 
also  requires  more  wheat  for  a  barrel  of  superfine  flour 
than  is  necessary. 

In  condemning  this  arrangement  of  the  merchant 
bolts,  we  have  constructed  a  chest  with  the  addition  of 
but  one  reel  more,  which  cleans  the  offal  much  better  than 
the  chest  above  described,  and  saves  a  second  grinding. 


A  DESCRIPTION  OF  A  NEW  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE 
MERCHANT  BOLTS  ON  THE  MOST  APPROVED 
PLAN. 

The  principal  improvement  of  this  arrangement  of 
the  merchant  bolts  to  the  miller  is  its  doing  away  with 
the  necessity  of  grinding  over  a  second  time. 

8* 


90  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

Our  chest  consists  of  four  reels,  with  a  separate  duster 
for  the  oflPals.  The  mechanical  proportions  of  it  are  as 
follows :  Length  of  reels,  20  feet;  diameter  of  four  reels, 
3  feet  each ;  diameter  of  duster,  40  inches. 

The  No.  of  the  cloth  to  be  used  as  follows :  On  the 
first  two  superfine  reels,  Nos.  8  and  9,  the  nine  being  on 
the  head,  one-half  of  each  on  the  next  two  being  the 
return  reels,  Nos.  7  and  8,  No.  7  being  on  the  head ;  on 
duster  first,  six  feet.  No.  7 ;  on  next,  12  feet,  No.  5 ; 
next,  two-feet  wire  of  12  or  16  meshes  to  the  inch.  The 
length  of  the  duster  being  20  feet  on  the  inside,  each 
reel  must  have  a  conveyer,  with  the  flights  all  drafted 
for  the  same  way.  The  two  return  reels  should  return 
the  whole  length,  with  a  slide  left  in  the  bottom  of  the 
superfine  conveyer  to  draw  as  far  as  five  feet,  for  the 
purpose  of  returning,  according  as  circumstances  may 
require.  There  should  be  a  spout  at  every  six  feet  of 
the  duster,  to  receive  each  quality  separated  by  this 
arrangement.  The  fine  cloth  on  the  return  reels  will 
dust  the  middlings  of  the  other  bolt  perfectly  clean, 
which  will  make  them  too  poor  for  any  other  use  than 
good  feed.  By  the  time  they  arrive  in  the  duster,  their 
name  is  changed  from  that  of  middlings  to  seconds. 
Merchant  bolts  of  this  description  are  capable  of  dress- 
ing from  150  to  200  barrels  of  flour  per  day  with  the 
greatest  ease,  which  will  be  large  enough  for  mills  of 
four  run  of  stones.  The  pitch  given  to  the  reels  should 
be  but  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  the  foot. 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  91 


DmECTIONS  FOR  MAKING  CLOTHS  FOR  BOLTS  OF 
ALL  DESCRIPTIONS. 

Bolting  cloths  should  not  be  cut  in  making,  as  they 
last  much  longer  when  economy  is  used  in  this  particu- 
lar. The  wide  German  old  anchor  brand  is  the  best  for 
millers'  use,  and  is  always  known  by  the  deep  yellow 
tinge  and  square  mark,  which  the  French  or  American 
manufacture  does  not  show.  The  width  of  the  ribs 
which  the  cloth  rests  on  should  be  lined  with  coarse 
heavy  cotton  cloth,  and  also  sewed  nicely  on  to  the 
bolting  cloth ;  also  the  head  and  tail  end  should  have  a 
piece  of  the  same  kind  of  cloth  as  above,  for  nailing  them 
fast.  The  best  white  sewing-silk  should  be  used,  instead 
of  thread.  In  making,  they  ought  not  to  be  made  to  fit 
the  reel  too  tight,  as  a  tight  cloth  is  apt  to  suck  the 
flour. 


ON  THE  PROPER  SIZE  OF  MILL-PICKS  FOR  DRESSING 
STONE. 

Much  has  been  attempted,  within  the  last  few  years, 
to  improve  this  important  tool  for  the  convenience  of 
the  miller,  but  all  attempts  that  I  have  seen  I  have  pro- 
nounced as  worthless,  in  comparison  with  a  pick  made 
from  the  cast-steel  bar,  as  generally  used.  The  size  of 
the  steel  bar  ought  to  be  one  and  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
square ;  cut  your  bar  six  inches  long,  and  draw  it  with 


92  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

a  true  taper  from  the  centre  each  way.  The  best  cast 
steel  should  be  used  for  mill-picks;  and  when  your 
picks  are  done,  they  should  be  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to 
three-eighths  wide.  At  each  end  the  steel  should  be 
hardened  till  they  show  a  straw-colour  for  two  inches. 
The  blacksmith  who  sharpens  them  requires  to  pay  a 
good  deal  of  attention,  to  prevent  the  steel  from  getting 
too  hot,. as  it  is  easily  detected  when  done;  and  also 
to  hammer  them  on  an  anvil  that  is  smooth,  to  prevent 
the  edges  from  cracking.  I  have  taken  a  good  deal  of 
pains  to  get  a  recipe  for  making  a  composition  for  tem- 
pering cast  steel,  which  may  be  found  useful. 


COMPOSITION  FOR  TEMPERING  CAST  STEEL 
MILL-PICKS. 

It  is  generally  very  difficult  for  the  miller  to  get  the 
blacksmith  to  give  the  steel  its  proper  temper,  from  a 
want  of  a  sufficient  knowledge  on  the  part  of  blacksmiths 
generally  what  that  temper  should  be.  We  here  insert 
a  composition  for  the  purpose,  which  assists  the  process 
of  tempering  cast  steel,  by  assisting  the  steel  to  retain 
its  natural  qualities  and  fineness  of  temper  in  opposition 
to  the  great  degree  of  heat  used  for  drawing  and  tem- 
pering, as  the  oftener  steel  is  heated,  the  more  brittle 
become  its  fibres,  which  renders  it  worthless  to  the  me- 
chanic, and  more  particularly  to  the  miller. 

To  3  gallons  of  water,  add  3  oz.  spirits  of  nitre,  3  oz. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  93 

of  spirits  of  hartshorn,  3  oz.  of  white  vitriol,  3  oz.  of  sal 
ammoniac,  3  oz.  alum,  6  oz.  salt,  with  a  double-handful 
of  hoof-parings ;  the  steel  to  be  heated  a  dark  cherry- 
red.  Every  miller  should  keep  a  large  jug  of  this  pre- 
paration in  the  mill,  for  tempering  his  picks  in ;  also,  it 
must  be  kept  corked  tight  to  prevent  evaporation. 


ON  THE  USE  OF  THE  PROOF  STAFF. 

The  proof  staff  is  made  of  cast  iron,  with  a  perfectly 
true  face,  and  set  in  a  case  with  a  cover  to  it.  It  is  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  the  wood  staff,  that  is  used  to 
work  the  stone  by,  in  order ;  as,  by  applying  one  on  the 
other,  you  will  soon  detect  any  error  in  your  stone  staff. 
A  little  sweet  oil  should  be  applied  on  the  proof  when 
about  to  try  the  order  which  your  stone  staff  is  in.  Rub 
the  face  of  the  iron  staff  gently  with  a  woollen  cloth, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  oil;  then  apply  the  wooden 
one :  the  oil  of  the  iron  staff  will  adhere  to  the  wood, 
so  as  to  guide  to  the  highest  spots.  You  can  face  your 
staff  much  better  with  this  instrument  than  it  is  possi- 
ble for  a  plane  to  do  it,  as,  in  finishing,  you  use  a 
scraper  of  steel  or  glass.  A  proof  staff  is  an  article  that 
should  lie  in  every  flouring  mill ;  it  is  as  necessary  as  a 
half-bushel  measure  or  toll-dish.  In  my  examinations 
of  some  of  our  best  flouring  mills,  I  have  found  this  in- 
strument wanting,  and  was  much  surprised  when  many 
good  practical  millers  have  told  me  they  never  used  one. 


94  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

The  proof  staff  requires  but  to  be  seen  and  used  once, 
to  be  the  miller* s  favourite.  They  are  made  all  sizes,  to 
suit  all  descriptions  of  millstones,  the  general  price 
being  $25. 

In  those  mills  that  have  the  prooff  staff  in  use,  the 
offals  are  from  two  pounds  to  five  pounds  lighter  per 
bushel  than  mills  that  have  not. 


ON  THE  AMOUNT  OF  HELP  NECESSARY  TO  BE  EM- 
'  PLOYED  IN  A  MILL  OF  FOUR  RUN  OF  STONES, 
WITH  THE  DUTY  OF  EACH  RESPECTIVELY. 

It  requiring  mechanical  skill  and  art  to  conduct  a 
flouring  mill  as  it  should  be,  we  here  give  the  proper 
management  for  conducting  the  same  with  propriety. 
It  should  have  a  head  miller,  who  should  act  as  super- 
intendent of  the  establishment  and  all  pertaining  there- 
to ;  also,  a  second  and  third  miller,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
perform  all  the  duties  assigned  them  by  the  head  miller, 
or  superintendent.  The  second  miller  should  be  capable 
of  taking  charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  mill  in  the  absence 
of  the  head  miller.  When  the  mill  runs  steady,  a  run 
of  stone  should  be  dressed  every  day.  The  second  mil- 
ler, and  third,  if  capable,  should  perform  that  duty, 
which  should  be  done  by  three  or  four  o^clock  each  day. 
In  the  morning,  as  soon  as  the  head  miller  returns  to 
the  mill,  which  should  be  after  breakfast,  he  should 
first  examine  how  each  stone  is  grinding,  and  then  the 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  95 

offal,  by  which  means  he  is  able  to  ascertain  how  the 
grinding  was  performed  since  he  left  the  mill  in  the 
evening,  when  his  watch  was  off  at  eleven  o'clock.  If 
he  detects  any  alteration,  he  should  inquire  into  its 
cause,  and  give  the  necessary  instruction  how  it  might 
have  been  avoided.  By  so  doing,  he  performs  his  duty 
as  an  instructor,  and  saves  any  further  occasion  for  ne- 
glect ;  or  otherwise,  then  he  should  continue  in  charge 
of  the  grinding  and  other  business,  such  as  may  come 
to  his  knowledge  during  the  day,  allowing  the  other 
miller  to  perform  the  stone-dressing,  sweeping,  &c. 
When  the  stones  are  dressed  and  put  down,  one  of  the 
hands  there  employed  should  take  the  oil-can  and  sup- 
ply every  journal  in  the  mill  with  a  fresh  supply,  which 
will  last  all  night ;  then,  early  in  the  morning,  it  should 
be  renewed  before  taking  up  the  stone,  which  will  last 
all  day.  Under  management  of  this  description,  all 
things  will  move  with  a  degree  of  order,  so  necessary  to 
the  conducting  of  the  business  as  it  should  be.  Mills 
that  do  a  large  retail  business,  should  have  a  person  for 
that  purpose,  who  is  also  competent  to  take  in  wheat. 
The  flour  should  be  packed  by  a  careful  person,  ex- 
pressly for  that  employment  alone.  The  night  should 
be  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  of  four  hours  each-— 
the  head  miller's  watch  first,  &c. 


HYDRAULICS   AS    PERTAINING   TO    THE    PRACTICAL 
MILLWRIGHT. 

A  knowledge  of  the  natural  laws  which  operate  on 
fluids,  particularly  water,  is  a  matter  of  importance  to 
the  miUwright,  which  he  should  be  well  versed  in. 
Learned  theory  is  not  of  much  use  in  this  particular, 
as  observation  and  practical  experience  go  further  to  the 
attainment  of  making  the  practical  millwright  more  per- 
fect than  years  of  learned  superficial  theories  can  or  do 
ever  effect.  For  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  let  us  ex- 
amine some  of  the  improvements  made  in  the  application 
of  water  for  driving  mills  within  the  last  thirty  years. 
Thirty  years  ago  the  undershot  wheel  was  the  principal 
wheel  used  for  low  heads,  by  which  only,  according  to 
learned  authors,  one-half  of  the  effective  power  was  at- 
tained, it  being  by  impulse  or  percussion.  This  we  will 
admit;  but  where  the  undershot  wheel  was  used  for 
driving  millstones,  in  the  days  of  such  wheels,  we  will 
not  admit  that  even  one-half  of  the  effective  power  of 
the  water  was  obtained,  as  demonstrated  by  recent  im- 
provements. We  are  told  also,  that  the  specific  gravity 
of  water  as  applied  to  the  overshot  wheel  for  driving 
millstones,  is  the  best  possible  mode  of  application,  as 
double  the  power  or  effect  is  obtained  on  the  overshot 
by  specific  gravity,  that  is  attainable  by  the  application 
on  the  undershot  by  impulse  or  percussion  only.  This 
we  shall  admit,  as  our  own  experience,  as  well  as  that 


•AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  97 

of  others  better  versed  in  science  and  practice,  liave  fully 
demonstrated. 

But  the  inventions  and  improvements  of  the  last  few 
years  have  brought  new  light  in  the  application  of  water 
for  driving  millS;  which  was  not  known  or  thought  of 
thirty  years  ago.  And  may  I  ask  to  whom  are  we  in- 
debted for  this  valuable  light  ?  To.the  man  of  scientific 
knowledge,  or  the  practical  mechanic  ?  We  say  to  the 
latter,  as  those  names  enrolled  on  the  list  of  inventions 
in  the  United  States  Patent  Office  will  attest.  Learned 
theoretical  investigations  have  never  accomplished  much 
for  our  advantage  in  the  improvements  of  the  mechanic 
arts  of  our  country ;  for  practical  science  is  that  science 
which  is  based  on  truth  only  for  light  alone.  We  have 
been  taught  that  in  uniting  what  has  been  applied  as 
^parate  powers  in  years  gone  by,  specific  gravity,  per- 
cussion by  impulse,  and  reaction,  which  is  nearly  equal 
with  either  of  the  other  powers,  as  to  afiect  it,  being  the 
after  efiect  of  all  the  others,  that  water,  as  a  fluid,  can 
create,  and  so  beautifully  demonstrated  for  the  purpose 
of  propelling  mills  by  the  inventors  whose  names  are 
attached  to  the  list  of  those  who  have  accomplished 
great  benefits  to  all  those  who  are  daily  using  their  in- 
ventions, by  propelling  their  mills  in  various  parts  of 
our  extensive  country.  We  shall  here  notice  the  names 
of  the  two  inventions  in  water-wheels  which  may  be 
considered  as  first-class  wheels  : 

First,  is  the  Lansing  Spiral  Percussion  and  Central 
Discharge  Wheel,  constructed  with  two  sets  of  buckets, 
and  called  in  this  work  the  Combination  Wheel. 


98 

Second,  is  S.  B.  Howd's  Direct  Action.  This  wheel 
operates  well  on  low  heads,  and  in  that  situation  is  a 
first-class  wheel. 

Now,  as  regards  the  subject  of  the  combination  of 
gravity,  percussion,  and  reaction,  applied  as  they  are  to 
form  one  great  power  by  having  a  water-wheel  properly 
constructed  to  receive  this  combination  and  in  applying 
it  to  the  propelling  of  mills,  I  do  aver  it  to  be  as  pow- 
erful as  the  overshot  in  the  most  advantageous  position 
for  business,  and  more  so  in  a  great  many  locations 
where  flouring  mills  are  the  purpose  used  for.  This 
opinion  may  appear  paradoxical  to  the  mere  theorist — 
those  only  theoretically  acquainted  with  the  power  or 
action  of  water  as  a  fluid ;  but  to  the  millwright,  whose 
experience  leads  him  to  look  and  examine  into  that  way 
of  application  which  produces  the  best  results,  he  will 
find  that  our  calculations  are  right  when  we  assert  that 
the  combinations  of  power  obtained  by  water  being  ap- 
plied on  the  principle  of  uniting  those  essentials  which 
form  this  combination  of  gravity,  percussion,  or  impulse, 
with  the  powerful  auxiliary  of  reaction  which  could  not 
be  attached  to  either  the  overshot  or  undershot  wheels, 
the  auxiliary  power  of  the  reaction  of  water  is  asserted 
by  Oliver  Evans  to  be  equal  to  the  action. — (Mill- 
wright's Guide,  Art.  45,  Law  11.) — This  we  believe  to 
be  true. 

That  action  and  reaction  are  two  difi'erent  qualities  of 
power  in  the  application  of  water  all  must  admit,  for 
the  active  verb  which  expresses  action  is  only  applied  to 
that  mode  of  action  known  to  the  operator  as  specific 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  99 

gravity,  and  action  by  impulse  or  percussion,  whicli  was 
the  only  power  applied  to  driving  mills  by  Oliver  Evans 
and  Elicott.  These  were  practical  millwrights,  and  au- 
thors of  a  good  practical  work  for  the  age  in  which  it  was 
written,  being  some  forty  years  or  more  ago  since  the  first 
edition  made  its  appearance,  for  instructing  those  of  our 
trade.  Many  of  us  should  be  grateful  for  the  benefits 
received  by  the  compiling  of  the  only  work  we  have  had 
as  a  miller  and  a  millwright's  guide,  and  we  fully  concur 
in  the  remarks  of  Thomas  P.  Jones,  editor  of  the  last  edi- 
tion of  the  Millwright's  Gruide,  in  hoping  that  in  the  his- 
tory of  American  inventors,  posterity  may  a<xJord  Evans 
that  place  which  he  justly  merited.  But  the  change 
which  time  has  effected  in  the  improvements  of  mills 
and  all  other  machinery,  renders  Mr.  Evans's  work 
comparatively  useless,  as  far  as  the  mechanical  construc- 
tion of  the  present  age  relates  to  mill-building.  But 
we  propose  to  illustrate  our  remarks  on  the  application 
of  water  when  used  by  those  combined  powers. 


POWERS  OF  GRAVITY,  PERCUSSION,  OR  IMPULSE, 
WITH  THE  REACTION  ATTACHMENT. 

That  a  water-wheel,  made  and  constructed  to  receive 
the  water  with  this  combination  for  driving  millstones 
or  saw-mills,  is  more  effective  than  the  overshot,  we 
shall  here  show  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  most  fastidi- 


100 

ous  or  skeptical  theorist,  according  to  Oliver  Evans' 
theory.  He  asserts,  Art.  42,  Young  Millwright  and 
Miller's  Guide : 

That  one-third  of  the  power  of  water,  acting  on  a 
wheel,  either  under  or  overshot,  is,  he  says,  necessarily 
lost  to  obtain  a  velocity  or  overcome  the  inertia  of  mat- 
ter; and  that  this  will  hold  true  with  all  machinery  that 
requires  velocity  as  well  as  power.  Every  millwright's 
own  experience  ought  to  teach  him  that,  if  it  was  pos- 
sible to  gear  the  overshot  water-wheel  into  the  stone 
pinion,  then  this  one-third  of  lost  power,  that  Oliver 
Evans  speaks  of,  would  be  advantageously  saved.  This 
could  not  be  done ;  for,  without  double  gearing,  the  ne- 
cessary motion  could  not  be  obtained  on  the  millstone. 
Then,  let  me  ask,  how  is  it  with  our  combination  wheels? 
Reason  and  practical  experience  show  us  quite  the  re- 
verse; for,  to  drive  a  run  of  stones  of  4}  feet  diameter, 
our  water-wheel  does  not  require  to  be  over  four  feet  in 
diameter,  under  a  head  of  water  of  12  feet  head  and  fall, 
giving  the  stone  a  motion  of  168  revolutions  per  minute, 
or  as  many  more  as  is  required,  by  altering  the  size  of 
the  wheel.  This  I  call  working  on  the  right  end  of  the 
lever,  where  the  stone  pinion  is  a  few  cogs  larger  than 
the  spur-wheel.  Oliver  Evans'  Young  Millwright  and 
Miller's  Guide,  page  81,  second  note  on  the  page,  gives 
more  evidence  on  this  particular.  He  says :  A  fluid 
reacts  back  against  the  penstock  with  the  same  force 
that  it  issues  against  the  obstacle  it  strikes,  founded  on 
the  laws  of  striking  fluids.  This  fully  corroborates  our 
previous  statement,  when  we  said  the  effective  power  of 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  101 

water  by  reaction  was  equal  to  its  effective  power  by 
gravity  and  percussion.  This  very  day  that  I  am  writing 
this  article,  my  own  experience  fully  convinced  me  of  this 
fact.  I  went  to  my  usual  avocation  in  attending  the 
business  of  my  mill.  I  have  one  of  Howd's  Patent 
Direct  Action  Water- Wheels ;  my  head  and  fall  is  usu- 
ally about  five  feet.  This  day,  November  26,  1848,  I 
had  high  water  setting  back  on  my  wheel  36  inches, 
(3  feet.)  I  drew  what  we  millers  call  a  full  gate,  with- 
out any  perceptible  motion  of  the  mill.  The  thought 
struck  me,  that  by  taking  hold  of  the  spur-wheel,  I 
could  assist  the  wheel  to  start,  as  the  impulse  from  the 
head  was  not  sufficient  to  create  the  slightest  motion, 
the  buckets  of  the  wheel  being  immersed  in  back  water. 
I  succeeded  in  turning  the  wheel  a  few  feet,  which,  by 
so  doing,  allowed  the  wheel  to  clear  itself  sufficiently, 
and  from  the  combination  of  percussion  or  impulse  from 
the  head  and  reaction  from  the  bottom,  which  was  in- 
stantaneous from  the  time  the  wheel  first  moved,  I. 
ground  as  much  with  but  three  feet  of  water  from  the 
surface  of  the  back  water,  this  day,  as  I  have  generally 
done  without  any  back  water,  or  any  perceivable  incon- 
venience from  it,  the  only  difierence  being  the  use  of 
more  water  to  do  the  same  amount  of  work.  The  ad- 
vantages of  these  combination  wheels  to  the  miller,  as 
regards  the  durability  and  large  amount  of  capital  saved 
by  the  difi*erence  in  the  cost  of  building  mills  where  they 
are  used  and  building  with  overshot  wheels,  are  very 
great.  We  here  give  some  idea  of  the  difi'erence,  as 
follows :— For  a  mill  of  four  run  of  stones,  requiring  five 


102  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

combination  wheels,  one  for  each  run  of  stones,  and  one 
machinery  in  operation.  The  five,  $800  it  would  require 
to  overshot  wheels  at  the  lowest  estimate  of  the  naked 
wheels,  $800  each,  with  two  large  cones,  2  pits,  2  crowns, 
4  pinions,  at  $800,  not  including  millwright's  wages  for 
putting  the  same  in  operation,  which  supposing  the  dif- 
ference to  be  about  one-half,  as  we  allow  eight  hundred 
dollars  to  furnish  the  wheels  and  materials  for  starting, 
to  the  stone,  with  the  combination  wheels.  Eight  hun- 
dred dollars  each  for  the  construction  of  the  overshot  is 
low.  I  have  myself  been  engaged  in  the  construction 
of  mills,  where  the  water-wheels,  two  in  number,  over- 
shot, averaged  one  thousand  dollars  each.  Now,  to 
construct  the  mills  as  far  as  the  stones — I  speak  only 
of  the  machinery  this  far — supposing  a  saving  of  one- 
half  to  the  stop  of  the  husk.  The  next  point  of  inter- 
est, we  consider,  is  the  difference  in  durability.  The 
combination  wheels,  being  made  of  iron,  will  last  as  long 
as  any  other  part  of  the  mill ;  the  overshot  wheels,  with 
a  great  deal  of  care,  may  last  from  nine  to  twelve  years 
without  renewing;  and  in  the  cold  climates,  such  as 
New  York  and  the  Canadas,  they  require  a  great  deal 
of  protection  from  the  frost,  which,  if  allowed  to  collect 
in  ice,  soon  weakens  the  joints  of  the  wheels,  and  ren- 
ders them  useless.  The  manner  in  which  the  combina- 
tion wheel  is  placed  protects  it,  in  any  climate,  from 
frost.  Then,  for  convenience,  it  is  preferable,  as,  when 
the  miller  wants  to  take  up  his  stone,  all  he  has  to  do 
is  to  shut  the  gate  and  take  up  the  stone,  without  the 
burthensome  task  of  raising  and  shifting  pinions,  as  is 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  103 

the  case  in  breast  undershot  or  overshot  wheels.  The 
term  combination,  in  this  article,  is  our  own  language, 
and  we  apply  it  to  water  acting  in  the  following  manner : 
By  percussion  or  impulse,  united  with  reaction  power, 
and  Lansinfy's  invention. 


REMARKS  TO  THE  MILLWRIGHT  ON  THE  NECESSITY 
OF  ECONOMY  IN  PLANNING  AND  ARRANGING  THE 
MACHINERY  OF  FLOURING  AND  GRIST  MILLS. 

I  HOPE  millwrights  who  may  chance  to  look  over  the 
pages  of  this  work,  will  fully  appreciate  our  remarks  on 
this  subject;  sufficiently,  at  least,  to  justify  us  in  saying 
that  we  have  had  experience  enough  to  fill  a  volume 
alone  on  this  subject,  having  devoted  the  best  part  of 
our  lifetime  to  the  milling  and  millwright  business,  and 
that  in  mills  constructed  by  different  mechanics,  where  we-- 
have  had  the  opportunity  of  contrasting  the  amount  of 
genius  and  skill  displayed  by  each,  and  also  the  objection- 
able blunders  that  have  been  committed  by  millwrights 
claiming  a  name  for  close  workmanship  and  acute  me- 
chanical skill  as  draftsmen.  The  first  essential  we  shall 
notice,  as  requisite  to  a  good  mill  of  any  kind,  is  power; 
the  next  is  proportional  strength  in  all  its  parts ;  the  next 
being  an  economical  arrangement  of  all  its  parts.  This 
is  the  entire  of  what  constitutes  the  name  of  a  good 
millwright.  We  shall  now  point  out  what  we  call  the 
objectionable  blunders  of  some  of  our  trade.    The  first  we 


104  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

sball  notice  is  an  inordinate  love  for  display  in  erecting 
buildings  of  too  costly  a  finish,  as  expensive  and  showy 
cornices,  a  large  amount  of  the  inside  work  cabinet  and 
panel,  made  such  as  the  useless  panel-work  exhibited 
in  some  of  our  mills  on  the  custom  and  flouring  bolting 
chests,  doors,  &c.  &c.  Again :  the  shafts  turned  and 
polished,  and,  worst  of  all,  a  display  of  complicated  ma- 
chinery, where  about  one  wheel  would  answer  when 
three  are  used.  This  is  wrong,  and  should  not  be  the 
case,  as  you  are  foolishly  wasting  a  large  amount  of 
capital,  that  might  be  much  better  invested  in  the  pur- 
chase of  wheat. 

And  not  the  least  important  matter  to  which  we 
shall  now  call  your  attention  more  particularly,  is  the 
husk, 

A  great  many  millwrights  connect  the  husk  with  the 
main  building.  This  is  wrong.  The  husk  should  be  a 
separate  frame  for  two  considerations,  namely :  First, 
it  is  the  main  support  of  most  all  the  machinery ;  se- 
cond, when  separate  the  stones  work  better,  as  they  are 
not  so  likely  to  get  out  of  level  as  where  the  husk  is 
connected  with  the  main  building.  Too  many  mill- 
wrights run  into  this  error  by  framing  the  husk  and 
building  together,  and  the  consequence  is,  when  the  mill 
is  loaded  with  grain,  the  building  settles, — as  right  over 
the  husk  the  most  weight  is  generally  placed,  and  the 
stone  keeps  getting  out  of  place  daily,  as  well  as  all  the 
other  machinery  attached  thereto,  which  soon  decreases 
the  power  of  the  mill,  and  gives  the  millwright  who 
constructed  the  mill  a  name  of  slighting  his  work,  when 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  105 

the  whole  cause  originated  in  this  one  particular, — of 
framing  the  husk  to  the  main  building. 

Another  objection,  which  is  quite  discernible  in  too 
many  good  merchant-mills  of  our  acquaintance,  is  an 
unnecessary  tremour,  which  gives  the  machinery  a  vi- 
brating motion.  This  is  easily  discerned  by  the  practi- 
cal machinist,  as  soon  as  his  ear  comes  in  contact  with 
that  ringing  sound  which  all  machinery  has  that  is 
working  irregular,  as  some  of  the  wheels  work  deeper 
than  their  relative  pitch  circles,  and  others  not  deep 
enough  for  the  pitch  circle.  This  may  all  be  avoided 
by  not  making  your  husk  too  long  posted.  As  a  general 
thing,  where  your  husk-posts  are  over  12  feet  in  length, 
there  is  a  tremour,  which  has  a  tendency  to  keep  the 
machinery  continually  working  out  of  its  centre. 


ON  BEDDING  THE  STONE. 

Another  difficulty  exists  with  many  millwrights,  in 
regard  to  bedding  the  stones,  and  that  is  in  laying  them 
down  in  what  I  call  a  temporary  manner,  by  laying 
boards  or  pieces  under  them,  which  keep  shrinking  and 
swelling,  and  making  it  difficult  to  keep  the  bed-stones 
level,  with  an  attendant  evil  to  the  bush,  as  it  also  gets 
out  of  place  by  the  same  fault.  The  proper  mode  of 
bedding  the  stone  is,  to  joint  their  beds  in  the  husk- 
timbers  to  a  perfect  level,  then  gauge  the  back  of  your 


10^  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

stone  to  a  size,  and  joint  the  same  to  a  true  face,  having 
it  a  little  hollow  next  the  eye,  and  when  placed  will  be 
perfectly  level ;  then  case  around  with  two-inch  plank, 
and  there  will  be  no  trouble  in  your  mill  with  the  stones 
getting  out  of  level,  and  the  bush  will  not  be  half  the 
trouble  as  in  the  old  way  of  bedding  stones.  A  proper 
attention  to  our  observations, — in  remedying  the  evils 
first  pointed  out,  in  arranging  the  machinery  of  mills 
to  the  best  possible  advantage, — is  what  makes  a  good 
practical  millwright ;  and,  also,  it  is  the  sum  total  of 
the  trade.  Grood  calculation  and  close  work  is  as  neces- 
sary to  the  millwright  as  the  handling  of  the  tools  which 
he  daily  uses.  He  must  not  think,  in  drafting  mills, 
how  much  machinery  he  can  place  in  the  building, 
which  only  adds  more  capital  that  might  be  better  en- 
gaged, as  we  have  previously  shown;  but  how  little 
machinery  it  will  possibly  take  to  complete  the  mill  in 
a  skilful  manner,  should  be  the  main  object  in  view. 
And  when  we  think  of  the  many  mills  which  have  been 
built  in  various  States  of  this  Union,  without  any  regard 
to  those  principles  as  just  laid  down,  where  thousands 
of  dollars  have  been  lavished  by  head  millwrights,  to 
the  injury  of  their  employers,  we  think  ourselves  fully 
justified  in  extending  this  caution  to  those  of  our  trade 
who  may  need  it. 

We  have  attached  a  number  of  jobs  of  dififerent  sized 
mills  to  this  work,  for  the  use  of  those  millwrights  who, 
in  the  language  of  friend  Fowler,  have  got  constructive- 
neBB  sufficiently  large,  but  whose  organ  of  order  is  be- 


AND   MILLWRIGHT^S   ASSISTANT.  107 

low  mediocrity.  By  these  lie  may  be  able  to  obtain  all 
tbe  necessary  information  from  our  collection  of  jobs, 
which  have  been  drafted  especially  for  this  work  by  the 
author  and  millwrights  of  more  acknowledged  ability, 
to  suit  all  locations  for  steam  and  water-mills  whose 
head  and  fall  is  from  3  to  30  feet,  with  a  full  calcula- 
tion of  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  drive  from  one 
to  ten  run  of  stones,  on  different  heads,  as  shown  in  our 
jobs.  All  our  plans  for  conducting  mills  of  all  descrip- 
tions, are  drafted  with  due  regard  for  that  phrenological 
organ,  called  order,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  machinery 
on  the  most  approved  modern  style  of  mill-building, 
both  fl'ouring,  grist,  and  saw-mills.  We  have  also  an- 
tiexed  a  catalogue  of  the  different  patterns  of  machinery, 
from  some  of  the  best  foundries  in  the  United  States, 
as  to  perfect  proportions  in  the  different  sizes  and  as- 
sortments of  castings,  both  for  quality  and  price,  not  to 
be  undersold  by  any  other  establishments  in  the  Union. 
It  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  millwright,  as  it  serves  as  a 
guide  to  direct  him  in  all  his  plans, — as  the  patterns 
are  all  numbered  in  different  sizes,  and  will  serve  the 
purpose  of  aiding  the  millwright  in  selecting  the  differ- 
ent articles  of  machinery  suitable  for  the  different 
kinds  of  mills,  and  in  proportioning  his  own  work  ac- 
cordingly. 


108  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 


TO   FIND   THE   NUMBER   OF   REVOLUTIONS   OF   THE 
WATER-WHEEL  PER  MINUTE. 

We  annex  a  table  of  rules  for  finding  the  revolutions 
of  any  sized  water-wheel,  which  the  millwright  will  find 
oftentimes  useful  in  his  practice,  namely : 

First,  find  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  by  multi- 
ing  the  diameter  by  22,  and  divide  by  7,  and  the  quo- 
tient is  the  correct  answer. 


TO  FIND  THE  VELOCITY  OF  THE  STONE  PER 
MINUTE. 

To  find  the  velocity  or  number  of  revolutions  of  a 
4  J  foot  stone  per  minute,  multiply  the  diameter  in 
inches,  which  is  54,  by  22,  and  divide  by  7,  which  gives 
a  fraction  less  than  170  inches,  the  circumference.  As 
the  lowest  calculation  we  give  stones  now,  being  2063 
feet,  or  24,756  inches,  the  skirt  moves  per  minute, 
which  would  give  the  stone  146  revolutions  per  minute. 
This  motion  is  much  too  slow  for  this  size  stone ;  we 
only  insert  it  for  the  use  of  those  who  like  slow  motion 
for  stones. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  109 


A  RULE  TO  FIND  THE  DIAMETER  OF  ALL  PITCH 
CIRCLES. 

The  proper  method  is  to  multiply  the  number  of  cogs 
in  the  wheel  by  the  pitch,  as 

24  cogs  and  2  inches  pitch, 
2  pitch, 

gives  48,  which  is  the  circumference ; 

multiplied  by  7,  and  divided  by  22, 

thus,  22)  336  (15^^^  diameter  in  inches. 

22 

"116 
110 


To  reduce  to  feet,  divide  by  12)  IS^^^ 

1.3},  which  gives  one 
foot  three  inches  and  a  quarter. 


TO  FIND  HOW  MANY  REVOLUTIONS  THE  STONE 
MAKES  FOR  ONE  OF  THE  WATER-WHEELS. 

Divide  146  revolutions  of  the  stone  by  the  number 
of  revolutions  of  the  water-wheel,  and  the  quotient  is  the 


10 


110  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


ON  MACHINERY. 

A  CORRECT  knowledge  of  those  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  the  power  and  use  of  machinery  should  be  the 
chief  study  of  both  the  miller  and  the  millwright,  but 
more  particularly  the  latter.  The  millwright's  trade  is 
different  now  from  what  it  was  thirty  years  ago.  Then  the 
millwright  had  all  his  own  gearing  to  make,  and  could 
not  be  expected  to  build  so  complete  and  well-arranged 
mills  as  he  can  now,  where  he  has  every  thing  furnished 
in  the  shape  of  machinery  from  the  large  machinery 
establishments  with  which  our  country  abounds,  all  of 
the  best  description,  fitted  and  finished  in  a  superior 
style  of  mechanical  contrivance,  from  the  water-wheel 
to  the  smallest  wheel  in  use  about  the  mill,  from  which 
the  millwright  may  select  the  requisite  gearing  to  suit 
any  water  power  capable  of  propelling  mills  of  any  de- 
scription. For  full  particulars,  look  at  the  index  of  this 
work,  for  mill-gearing  and  catalogues  of  the  different 
patterns  of  machinery  furnished. 


A  RULE  FOR  CONSTRUCTING  THE  CONVEYOR. 

The  conveyor  is  that  useful  piece  of  machinery  which 
forms  an  artificial  screw  for  conveying  either  wheat,  flour, 
or  any  other  stuff,  from  one  part  of  the  mill  to  any  de- 
sired part.     It  is  simple  in  its  construction,  the  shaft 


AND    millwright's   ASSISTANT.  Ill 

being  from  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter.  For  a  shaft  of  4 
inches  diameter,  the  flights  should  be  about  IJ  inches 
wide,  with  two  inches  in  length  for  the  blade,  and  a 
stem  of  one  inch,  to  fill  a  hole  in  the  shaft  from  seven- 
eighths  of  an  inch  to  one  inch  in  diameter.  This  size 
answers  for  flour  and  meal  best,  it  requiring  a  more 
substantial  one  for  the  moving  of  grain.  To  a  shaft  of 
six  inches  diameter,  the  flight  should  be  two  inches 
wide  on  the  blade.  To  lay  out  the  shaft  to  receive 
them,  dress  it  eight-square,  put  in  the  journals,  and 
band  them  substantially ;  then  lay  out  with  the  square 
for  your  flights  in  the  following  manner : — Scribe  for 
the  first  one  on  the  end  of  the  shaft ;  then  measure  with 
your  dividers  one-fourth  of  an  inch  from  your  first,  and 
scribe  your  line  on  the  next  square  of  the  shaft,  which 
continue  to  do  till  you  get  to  the  other  end ;  then  go 
back  and  begin  with  the  first  point  of  your  first  flight  to 
the  first  point  of  the  scribe  you  made,  for  the  second 
flight  is  called  the  pitch  line,  to  set  the  flights  at  the 
proper  angle. 


ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OP  MILL-DAMS. 

MiLL-DAMS  are  generally  a  source  of  great  expense, 
in  keeping  them  in  repair,  when  constructed  out  of  poor 
materials.  There  are  as  many  opinions  on  the  proper 
way  to  build  them  as  there  are  mill-dams  in  use.  Some 
prefer  stone,  some  clay,  and  others  brush,  logs,  and 
every  conceivable   material  of   such  nature.      But,  in 


112  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

building  mill-damS;  the  first  thing  to  be  looked  at  is  the 
location  where  the  dam  is  to  set,  of  what  kind  of  a 
foundation  it  is  to  set  on,  whether  a  soft  bottom  or 
hard;  in  other  words,  clay  or  stone  foundation  by 
nature.  If  stone,  the  expense  is  not  half  as  great  as 
clay  or  other  soil. 

But  in  the  Western  States,  stone  are  not  sufficiently 
plenty  to  construct  dams  of,  so  that  on  foundations  of 
soft  bottoms  the  expense  is  greater  to  build  dams  than 
many  wish  to  go  to. 

In  the  first  place,  a  good  foundation  is  necessary  to 
protect  the  dam  from  breaks,  accidents  by  the  burrowing 
of  musk-rats,  which  occasion  the  destruction  of  so  many 
mill-dams. 

As  to  the  description  of  dams  which  we  should  re- 
commend where  stone  are  not  handy,  would  be  a  frame 
dam,  they  being  more  permanent  and  capable  of  resist- 
ing the  attacks  of  musk-rats  and  high  water.  We  shall 
here  give  a  plan  for  building  such  a  dam  as  we  should 
recommend  for  all  mill  sites  of  soft  foundations.  The 
bottom  where  you  are  going  to  erect  the  dam,  should  be 
levelled  quite  level,  then  mud  sills  should  be  sunk  level 
with  the  surface,  crossways  of  the  stream,  about  10  or 
12  feet  apart,  and  of  a  width  of  35  or  40  feet  from  bank 
to  bank.  The  two  outside  sills  should  be  piled  with  2 
inch  plank  driven  down  to  a  depth  of  4  or  5  feet,  with 
the  joints  as  close  as  possible,  and  they  would  be  the 
better  of  being  lined  with  some  light  stuff  f  of  an  inch 
thick.  Posts  of  12  inches  square  should  be  framed  into 
the  first  row  of  outside  sills,  on  both  sides,  all  the  way 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  113 

across  the  dam,  from  bank  to  bank,  and  a  distance  of 
six  feet  apart.  They  should  each  be  locked  with  braces 
extending  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  posts  where 
they  should  be  joined  together  with  a  lock  instead  of  a 
mortice  and  tenon,  with  an  iron  bolt  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter going  through  both  and  fastened  with  a  nut. 
I  prefer  a  lock  joint  to  mortice  and  tenon  for  the  follow- 
ing reason:  The  tenon  soon  becomes  rotten,  and  the 
brace  becomes  useless  in  a  few  years.  This  brace  should 
be  set  at  an  angle  of  about  55  or  60  degrees,  with  the 
other  end  morticed  into  a  sill  with  a  two  inch  mortice ; 
being  covered  with  the  dirt,  it  will  not  decay,  as  the  air  is 
excluded.  The  braces  require  to  be  about  8  by  6  inches 
and  15  feet  long.  The  posts  should  be  capped  from  one 
to  the  other,  plate  fashion ;  then  the  posts  should  receive 
lining  of  2  inch  plank  on  the  inside  next  the  dirt  of  both 
sides,  pinned  fast  to  the  posts. 

If  the  stream  afford  a  great  deal  of  water,  I  should 
recommend  the  dam  to  be  built  in  two  sections,  as  above 
described,  which  should  be  divided  by  a  waste  way  for 
the  surplus  water,  which  should  be  located  in  the  centre 
of  the  dam  and  of  about  sixty  feet  wide.  For  its  con- 
struction, I  should  recommend  the  depth  to  be  from  the 
bottom  of  the  dam  in  the  following  manner :  Let  each 
section  of  the  dam  form  a  butment  next  the  waste  way, 
by  placing  sills  four  feet  apart  the  length  of  the  waste 
way;  in  each  of  these  sills  posts  should  be  framed,  with 
a  brace  for  the  sides.  These  rows  of  posts  standing 
right  across  the  dam,  will  form  two  sectional  hutments 
of  the  dam,  and  the  middle  one  may  be  constructed  by 


114  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

being  braced  lengthwise  of  the  stream  with  short  braces 
to  avoid  being  in  the  way  of  drift  wood  passing  down 
stream,  it  being  necessary  for  string  pieces  for  a  bridge. 
Then  those  sills  should  be  covered  with  an  apron  of  two 
inch  plank,  joined  perfectly  straight,  extending  at  least 
40  feet  below  the  dam,  to  carry  off  the  water  at  such  a 
distance  to  prevent  an  undermining  of  the  dam,  by  hav- 
ing the  foundation  washed  away,  which  the  water  will 
certainly  do  if  allowed  to  fall  on  the  soil  too  near  the 
dam.  The  planks  which  are  used  for  the  purpose  of 
lining  the  posts  which  form  the  hutments  of  each  section 
of  the  dam  and  the  ends  of  the  waste  way,  should  be  jointed, 
tongued,  and  grooved,  to  prevent  the  slightest  leakage. 

Every  thing  of  importance  being  completed,  the  dirt 
should  be  filled  in  with  teams,  as  the  more  it  is  tramped 
the  better.  Clay  or  coarse  gravel  is  the  best  soil  to  use. 
Proper  sized  gates  may  be  put  in  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  waste  way,  about  3  or  4  feet  wide,  to  a  level  with 
low  water  mark,  not  to  be  raised  except  in  times  of  very 
high  water,  as  the  proper  height  of  the  mill-pond  should 
be  regulated  by  boards  placed  over  the  gates  for  the  de- 
sired head,  as  the  water  should  be  allowed  to  pass  at  all 
times  freely  over  them. 

This  is  the  description  of  a  frame  dam  which  the 
author  built.  It  gives  the  greatest  satisfaction,  it  being 
proof  against  the  attacks  of  musk-rats,  which  prove  such 
an  annoyance  to  the  miller.  Located  in  a  country 
where  those  animals  abound  in  great  numbers,  my  dam 
has  been  built  about  seven  years,  and  has  not  given  way 
once  in  that  time. 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  115 


ON  THE  DIFFERENT-  KINDS  OF  SMUT   MACHINES  IN 
USE,  WITH  RULES  FOR  MAKING  THE  SAME. 

The  smut  machine  is  used  for  separating  smut  and 
all  other  impurities  from  the  wheat,  and  is  a  necessary 
machine  for  all  mills  making  good  flour.  But  the  kind 
of  smut  machine  which  should  be  used  for  that  purpose, 
is  difficult  to  find  among  the  hosts  of  recent  inventions, 
as  every  late  invention  seems  to  be  got  up  more  with  the 
view  of  a  shaving  machine  than  for  the  purpose  of  sepa- 
rating smut  from  wheat,  for  which  they  are  disposed  to 
the  miller. 

The  most  of  those  inventions  that  I  have  seen  in  use, 
are  constructed  of  cast  iron,  which  soon  wear  smooth, 
and  are  then  rendered  useless,  for  the  want  of  a  suffi- 
ciently rough  surface  to  scrape  ojff  the  smut  from  the 
grain. 

Another  great  difficulty  exists  with  those  kind  of  smut 
machines.  They  all  require  too  great  a  velocity,  which 
produces  more  friction  than  there  ought  to  be  produced, 
where  there  is  so  much  light  combustible  material,  as 
chaff,  &c.,  eight  hundred  revolutions  per  minute  being 
the  motion  they  require. 

I  have  constructed  a  smut  machine  which  is  very 
simple,  and  safe  from  fire  occasioned  by  friction,  as  the 
motion  does  not  require  over  500  revolutions  per  minute 
for  the  smallest  size,  and  400  for  the  largest  size.  It  is 
nothing  more  than  an  improvement  on  the  old  cone  ma- 
chine, the  only  difference  being,  that  in  my  machine  the 


116  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

cylinder  differs  by  its  being  made  so  as  to  produce  a 
strong  current  of  air,  which  acts  on  the  wheat  as  it  passes 
through  the  machine,  and  forces  it  through  the  con- 
cave, which  is  made  of  Russian  sheet  iron,  perforated 
with  an  oblong  punch.  We  here  give  the  dimensions 
of  a  machine  that  will  clean  about  30  or  40  bushels  per 
hour. 

The  bottom  should  be  30  inches  in  diameter,  and  the 
top  18  inches  in  diameter,  and  36  inches  deep,  which 
gives  the  proper  sized  concave.  The  cylinder  should  be 
constructed  on  an  iron  shaft,  which  should  be  turned 
at  both  ends,  one  end  to  a  proper  point,  which  should  be 
pointed  with  a  good  cast-steel  point,  fitted  to  run  per- 
pendicularly. The  shaft  should  be  two  inches  square. 
The  cylinder  should  be  solid,  in  the  following  propor- 
tions :  The  bottom  20  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  top 
12  inches;  then  fit  on  15  beeters,  or  wings,  made  out 
of  heavy  band  iron,  wide  enough  to  fill  up  the  remainder 
of  the  concave,  giving  each  wing  about  one-half  inch 
from  the  concave,  which  would  leave  each  wing  4| 
inches  at  the  bottom,  and  2f  inches  at  the  top.  In  put- 
ting on  the  wings,  one  edge  should  be  turned  so  as  to 
form  a  right  angle  with  the  wings,  and  about  an  inch 
wide,  with  holes  sufficient  to  screw  them  on  to  the  cy- 
linder with  the  flanges  screwed  on  the  opposite  way  from 
which  the  cylinder  runs.  The  band  pully  should  be  on 
the  top  of  the  machine.  When  the  machine  is  ready 
to  set  up,  it  should  bolted  down  on  a  square  frame,  made 
to  receive  it,  two  feet  from  the  floor,  and  this  frame 
should  be  enclosed  with  No.  12  wire,  so  as  to  allow  the 


AND   MILLWRIGHT* S   ASSISTANT.  117 

air  to  the  machine.  I  prefer  having  the  top  and  bottom 
segments  made  of  cast  iron  instead  of  wood,  with  3 
sockets  cast  iron,  in  each  half  of  the  top  and  bottom 
segments.  The  sockets  should  be  about  2  inches  square, 
to  receive  the  ribs  that  form  the  concave  that  the  sheet 
iron  is  screwed  to,  which  would  be  six  in  number. 
Cast  iron  will  last  much  longer  than  wood,  and  is  made 
in  one-half  the  time.  After  the  patterns  are  made  for 
the  castings,  the  cost  of  one  of  these  smut  machines  is 
not  over  fifty  dollars,  and  can  be  made  by  any  mill- 
wright. They  are  used  in  some  of  the  best  merchant 
flouring  mills  in  the  States  of  New  York  and  Ohio. 
The  wheat  ought  to  pass  through  a  blower  before  it  ar- 
rives in  the  garner  over  the  stone.  If  the  wheat  passes 
from  the  smut  mill  through  the  spout  into  the  garner, 
then  it  will  do  to  have  a  small  blower  directly  under  the 
smut  mill,  but  if  taken  from  the  machine  by  elevators, 
the  blower  ought  to  be  erected  right  over  the  garner 
that  feeds  the  stone,  as  dust  is  always  settling  about  the 
elevators. 

This  smut  machine  is  the  cheapest  for  all  kinds  of 
mills,  from  the  smallest  grist  to  the  largest  flouring  mill, 
being  free  from  all  unnecessary  friction,  and  when 
smooth  is  easily  sharpened  by  punching  over,  until 
the  sheet  iron  is  worn  out,  which  will  last  three  or  four 
years,  and  can  be  replaced  in  a  short  time  when  worn 
out.  From  an  eighth  to  a  sixteenth  is  wide  enough  to 
punch  the  sheet  iron  for  the  concave. 


118  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


REMARKS  ON  A  LATE  INVENTION,  OF  INTRODUCING 
AIR  BETWEEN  MILLSTONES,  WHEN  GRINDING. 

This  invention  was  patented  a  few  years  ago,  by  a 
miller,  in  the  State  of  Ohio ;  and  from  the  ingenuity 
displayed  in  the  contrivance,  promised  a  flattering  hope 
of  its  utility  as  an  assistant  means  in  having  the  meal 
cooled  in  the  operation  of  grinding ;  but  this  artificial 
means  of  using  air  between  the  millstones  must  prove 
a  failure,  and  the  reason  is,  it  comes  in  contact  with  two 
essential  principles  of  natural  philosophy, — the  first  be- 
ing that  of  friction,  and  the  second,  the  natural  and  only 
element  of  friction,  heat.  The  inventor  should  have 
first  examined  the  natural  laws  by  which  friction  is  pro- 
duced, and  then  he  could  have  clearly  seen  the  impossi- 
bility of  suppressing  the  heat  of  millstones  while  per- 
forming the  operation  of  grinding ;  as  every  intelligent 
miller  must  know,  that  pressing  grain  between  two  mill- 
stones creates  the  very  agent  that  performs  the  grinding, 
being  friction,  and  as  heat  is  the  element  of  friction,  the 
amount  of  friction  produced  by  a  millstone  when  grind- 
ing, is  as  the  square  root  of  the  amount  of  pressure 
used ;  consequently,  the  amount  of  air  necessary  to  re- 
pel the  heat  produced  by  the  friction  of  grinding,  would 
have  to  be  great  enough  to  blow  the  stone  off  the  cock- 
head.  Our  remarks  on  this  subject  are  based  on  natural 
philosophy,  together  with  an  examination  of  the  inven- 
tion in  operation.     The  mode  of  using  this  artificial  air 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  119 

between  millstones,  as  applied  by  the  patentee,  is  ex- 
tremely simple,  a  good  feature  in  this  principle,  as  the 
expense  of  the  contrivance  is  small.  A  large  bellows 
is  placed  in  the  cog-pit,  conducting  a  given  quantity  of 
air  into  four  attached  pipes  which  enter  the  millstones 
through  the  corners  of  the  bush,  the  pipes  being  sunk 
as  deep  as  is  necessary  in  the  four  leading  furrows  near- 
est the  corner  follower  of  the  bush  in  the  head  stone, 
and  open  at  the  ends  of  the  pipes  to  admit  the  passage 
of  the  air.  This  is  only  an  outline  of  the  principle, 
being  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  to  convey  a  proper  idea 
of  the  application  and  use  of  the  invention,  for  the  use 
of  all  those  millers  who  have  not  examined  the  inven- 
tion personally.  The  author  refrains  from  passing  any 
decided  opinion  on  this  invention,  out  of  motives  of 
delicacy  to  the  patentee,  as  well  as  other  proprietors; 
but  we  consider  that  this  invention  would  be  more  useful 
as  a  means  of  cooling  the  flour  or  meal,  by  having  it 
applied  in  the  cooler  instead  of  the  stone.  We  think 
that  one-fiftieth  part  of  the  air  applied  in  the  cooler,  or 
hopper,  would  effect  the  cooling  of  the  meal  more  than 
it  is  possible  for  it  to  be  done  as  applied  through  the 
stones ;  and  we  see  no  reason  to  prevent  its  being  use- 
ful in  moist  sultry  weather,  when  applied  in  the  cooler, 
by  making  the  temperature  of  air  below  that  of  the 
surrounding  air  outside,  and  the  meal  must  bolt  cleaner, 
and  in  some  cases  better,  than  without  this  artificial 
mode  of  conducting  the  air  to  the  cooler. 


120  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


A  DESCRIPTION   OF    THE   AUTHOR'S   GRAIN-DRYER, 
PATENTED   1850. 

This  inacliine  is  constructed  in  the  following  simple 
manner ; — It  consists  of  two  or  more  stationary  cylin- 
ders, one  above  the  other;  and  by  the  use  of  double 
transverse  rakes,  the  grain  is  passed  from  the  top  cylin- 
der to  the  bottom,  and  from  that  to  the  millstone,  from 
which,  after  being  ground,  it  passes  into  a  bolt  made 
expressly  of  fine  brass  wire.  This  machine  is  heated 
by  an  ordinary  common  furnace,  on  which  the  machine 
is  built.  The  machine  is  constructed  of  iron  entirely, 
and  in  the  most  durable  manner. 

Having  examined  various  machines  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, the  author  feels  assured  that  his  machine  will  ex- 
tract the  oil  and  moisture  from  Indian  corn  better  than 
any  other  contrivance  for  a  similar  purpose,  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons,  namely :  That,  owing  to  its  peculiar 
construction,  a  great  heat  can  be  brought  to  act  on  the 
grain  in  the  last  stage  of  drying,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  difi'erent  degrees  of  heat  which  the  grain  encounters, 
on  this  principle  of  stationary  cylinders,  is  more  bene- 
ficial than  if  the  degrees  of  heat  on  each  cylinder  was 
equal,  as  the  heat  on  the  bottom  cylinder  is  always  the 
greatest,  and  which  acts  on  the  grain  last.  This  is  a 
principle  which  my  machine  commands  over  all  others. 
Next,  the  combination  of  stationary  cylinders  being  such 
as  to  allow  the  heat  to  act  on  each  other,  as  the  number 
of  cylinders  above  the  bottom  are  all  punched  so  as  to 


HUGHEs's   GRAIN    DRYER. 


Plate  4 —p.  120. 


AND   MILLWRIGHT^S   ASSISTANT.  121 

admit  the  heat  to  operate  on  each  in  succession ;  also, 
it  being  constructed  out  of  material  which  renders  it 
fire-proof. 

It  is  entirely  an  original  invention  of  the  author,  per- 
fectly simple  in  its  construction,  and  will  make  a  decided 
improvement  in  that  great  staple  production  of  the  soil 
of  most  of  the  States  of  this  Union :  as,  from  the  na- 
ture of  Indian  corn,  without  being  properly  dried,  it 
becomes  an  article  of  dangerous  investment  in  com- 
mercial trade,  for  either  the  miller  or  merchant.  In 
warm  weather  it  will  heat  and  sour  before  it  reaches 
market,  which  prohibits  the  merchant  from  operating 
largely  in  the  purchase  of  this  grain  until  late  in  the 
coming  season;  consequently,  our  farmers  receive  no 
return  from  this  crop  until  so  late  a  period  in  the  fol- 
lowing season,  that  the  country  generally,  does  not  real- 
ize one-half  the  benefit  from  this  extensive  crop.  A 
knowledge  of  the  importance  it  would  be  to  those  States 
that  raise  large  surplus  quantities  of  this  grain,  so  much 
wanted  in  other  countries,  induced  the  author  to  con- 
struct some  means  for  accomplishing  what  he  conceives 
to  be  a  great  end  or  improvement  in  this  particular, 
which  will  dry  from  one  hundred  to  one  thousand  bushels 
of  corn  per  day,  with  one  machine.  Every  intelligent 
farmer  will  acknowledge  the  benefit  derived  from  my 
invention,  which  will  enable  him  to  receive  the  full 
value  for  his  corn  crop,  by  making  it  an  article  of  im- 
mediate demand,  either  by  the  merchant  or  miller,  who 
buys  it  for  export.  The  price  of  Indian  corn,  in  all  our 
western  markets,  is  always,  in  the  fall  and  winter,  lower 


122  THE  AMERICAN  MILLER, 

than  western  farmers  can  afford  to  raise  it  for ;  and  al- 
ways will  be,  until  it  can  be  properly  manufactured  at 
home,  and  sent  to  our  commercial  cities  for  export  in  a 
situation  that  will  warrant  capital  being  employed  in  the 
purchase  of  it.     For  such  is  our  machine  intended. 

According  to  chemical  analysis,  corn  contains  a  pro- 
portion of  moisture  double  that  of  any  other  of  the  ce- 
real grains,  and  retains  it  during  its  natural  existence. 
As  oil  is  a  large  portion  of  its  component  parts,  it  pre- 
vents the  moisture  from  evaporating,  except  by  artificial 
means. 

My  invention  may  also  be  profitably  used  in  drying 
wheat,  as  well  as  corn,  and  save  a  large  amount  of  capi- 
tal frequently  lost  by  those  who  deal  largely  in  this  kind 
of  produce.  Wheat  should  unquestionably  be  dried  be- 
fore it  is  ground,  if  the  flour  is  wanted  to  keep  any  or- 
dinary length  of  time,  particularly  for  export.  It  will 
also  yield  much  more  flour  per  bushel,  and  require 
about  one-half  the  machinery  to  manufacture  it  that  it 
otherwise  does  where  it  is  not  dried.  The  quality  of  the 
flour  is  improved  at  least  ten  per  cent.,  as,  by  drying 
the  wheat,  all  impurities  of  a  vegetable  nature  are  en- 
tirely consumed ;  and  by  extracting  its  natural  moist- 
ure, the  flour  will  consume,  when  baked,  more  water 
than  it  would  before  the  grain  was  dried,  which  makes 
the  bread  much  more  palatable,  it  being  more  spongy 
than  bread  made  from  flour  of  any  climate ;  and  if  pro- 
per care  is  taken  to  dry  the  barrels  over  a  charcoal  fire 
previous  to  packing,  the  flour,  will  remain  sweet   for 


AND  millwright's  ASSISTANT.  123 

years,  and  stand  the  salt  water  equally  as  well  as  a  bar- 
rel of  beef  or  pork. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  an  article  in  this  work  by  Professor  Burke, 
taken  from  his  Report  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
of  the  United  States,  for  1848. 


RULES  FOR  THE  PURCHASE  OF  WHEAT  FOR  MILLERS* 
USE. 

This  is  a  subject  of  much  importance  to  both  the 
miller  and  farmer,  as  well  as  all  others  dealing  in  wheat 
— the  standard  weight  of  which  is  held  at  60  pounds  per 
measured  bushel  of  32  quarts.  But  the  deleterious  ef- 
fects to  which  this  crop  is  so  often  subject,  cause  fre- 
quent disappointment  to  both  miller  and  farmer,  by 
wheat  crops  frequently  falling  short,  (per  measured 
bushel,  of  this  referred-to  standard  weight,)  and  ren- 
ders necessary  some  plan  for  the  benefit  and  protection 
of  both  parties. 

In  a  great  many  of  our  milling  establishments  a  rule 
of  dochage,  as  it  is  termed,  prevails,  in  the  following  pro- 
portion :  For  every  pound  that  the  measured  bushel  falls 
short  of  60,  one  pound  is  added  to  make  up  this  shrink- 
age, as  in  the  case  of  wheat  weighing  but  56  pounds  per 
measured  bushel,  64  is  required,  and  in  like  proportion 
as  the  case  may  be.  Now  this  plan  of  dockage  I  should 
not  at  all  recommend,  from  the  fact  that  it  raises  a  pre- 
judice, in  the  minds  of  farmers  generally,  against  the 


124  THE  AMERICAN  MILLER; 

mill,  wherever  this  plan  prevails.  As  the  difference  in 
judgment  of  the  buyer  and  seller  of  this  article  conflicts 
so  frequently,  the  deduction,  according  to  the  foregoing 
rules,  does  not  at  all  suit  the  views  of  farmers  generally. 

To  obviate  this  difficulty,  I  should  recommend  the 
miller  to  deal  in  the  article  of  wheat  as  the  merchant 
does  in  the  article  of  calicoes,  broadcloths,  or  any  other 
description  of  goods,  whose  relative  value  is  fixed  accord- 
ing to  its  quality.  This  I  deem  to  be  the  true  and  general 
rule  which  should  be  adopted  by  all  merchant  millers. 
The  only  exception  which  should  be  taken  to  this  plan 
is  when  the  miller  does  custom  flouring ;  that  is,  where 
farmers  have  their  wheat  floured  by  the  barrel  on  their 
own  account;  and  in  this  case,  only  where  the  farmer  has 
the  miller  restricted  as  to  the  number  of  bushels  of  wheat 
allowed  for  each  barrel  of  flour.  There  are  many  sea- 
sons that  wheat  overruns  its  standard  weight,  and  as 
frequently  it  falls  short  of  it.  When  the  grain  is  well 
filled,  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  the  farmer  more  than  the 
miller,  as  good  plump  wheat,  well  cleaned,  generally 
overruns  some  two  or  more  pounds  per  bushel,  mea- 
sured according  to  the  species. 

The  different  species  of  wheat  require  also  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  profits  of  millers,  as  the  yield  of  flour  of 
each  is  as  varied  as  the  different  samples.  This  is  the 
result  of  simple  experience,  which  millers  are  all  more 
or  less  acquainted  with.  That  sample  of  wheat  which 
weighs  heaviest  does  not  always  make  the  most  flour. 
For,  as  a  general  thing,  the  sample  of  wheat  called  Me- 
diterranean, for  actual  weight,  exceeds  by  some  pounds 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  125 

any  other  sample.  In  this  particular,  now,  most  mil- 
lers know  that  this  is  not  the  description  for  merchant 
flour,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  of  a  coarse,  hard  nature, 
difficult  to  grind,  and  always  bolts  so  very  free  that  the 
flour  is  quite  specky,  and  partaking  entirely  of  the  fari- 
naceous substance  more  than  any  other  of  the  kind,  be- 
sides containing  less  starch  than  most  other  samples  of 
wheat.  But,  as  regards  its  nutritious  qualities,  it  is 
inferior  to  none  of  the  wheat  species.  It  contaius 
about  20  per  cent,  of  gluten,  which  makes  it  a  desirable 
sample  for  family  flour  and  home  use.  But  being  so 
far  below  other  samples  in  the  quantity  of  starch,  which 
tends  to  give  the  berry  a  dark  appearance,  renders  it 
comparatively  useless  for  transportation,  the  flour  hav- 
ing a  coarse,  specky  appearance,  which  tends  very  much 
to  injure  its  sale. 

As  regards  the  best  quality  of  wheat  for  millers'  use, 
I  recommend  the  Michigan  White  Flint,  it  being  supe-* 
rior  in  richness,  containing  much  less  water  and  more 
gluten  than  other  qualities  grown  in  the  Western  States. 
There  are  of  this  species  two  distinct  kinds — namely, 
the  large  White  Flint  and  the  Michigan  Dwarf;  the 
latter  being  of  a  more  delicate  and  rich  quality  of  wheat, 
and  producing  flour  of  the  best  quality.  At  the  exhi- 
bition of  agricultural  specimens  by  the  Michigan 
State  Agricultural  Society,  in  1849,  at  the  city  of 
Detroit,  these  two  last-mentioned  samples  of  wheat  took 
first  and  second  premiums,  in  preference  to  all  others 
exhibited — the  author  being  the  exhibitor  of  the  Dwarf 
White  Flint,  and  received  the  premium  for  the  same. 


126  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

This  seems  to  be  particularly  adapted  to  the  luxuriant 
soil  of  Michigan ;  and  if  it  were  possible  to  deliver  it  in 
the  New  York  market  in  the  same  state  of  neatness  that 
Oswego  and  Genesee  flour  is  brought  to  that  market,  Mi- 
chigan flour  would  justly  merit  the  preference.  But  the 
distance  being  so  much  greater,  and  reshipping  so  fre- 
quent, by  which  the  barrels  become  racked  and  soiled 
to  that  extent,  that  the  western  miller  has  those  difficul- 
ties to  contend  with,  that  are  entirely  unknown  to  mil- 
lers in  western  New  York.  For  it  is  a  notorious  fact, 
that  the  heaviest  milling  establishments  in  New  York 
are  almost  exclusively  supplied  with  western  wheat,  and 
principally  of  mixed  qualities,  from  spring  wheat  upwards, 
and  from  which  the  Genesee  flour  is  principally  made. 
But  its  going  to  market  in  such  a  nice  clean  manner  is 
the  sole  reason  of  its  generally  commanding  a  better 
price ;  which  fully  corroborates  the  old  proverb  :  A  man 
is  known  and  respected  in  proportion  to  the  quality  of 
the  cloth  in  the  coat  that  he  wears ;  and  a  maxim  of 
philosophy  extensively  countenanced  by  all  city  flour 
inspectors,  whose  judgment  is  more  frequently  guided  by 
the  outward  appearance  of  a  barrel  of  flour,  than  by  the 
contents  and  quality  of  the  interior,  which,  for  some  years 
past,  has  operated  very  much  to  the  disadvantage  of  all 
western  millers  who  had  not,  until  recently,  a  flour  agent 
to  receive  and  dispose  of  their  flour  for  them,  which 
was  actually  necessary  in  New  York  markets.  By  a 
wise  legislative  act,  the  office  of  public  flour  inspector  is 
now  abolished,  which   tends   to    place  western   fancy 


AND  millwright's   ASSISTANT.  127 

brands  on  a  par  with  stately  Genesee,  which,  previous 
to  this,  was  not  the  case. 

See  article  on  the  inspection  of  flour. 


THE  PROPER  METHOD  FOR  FITTING  THE  BALE  AND 
DRIVER  TO  THE  MILLSTONE. 

This  operation  of  fitting  the  irons  in  millstones  re- 
quires a  great  degree  accuracy  in  the  millwright.  In 
the  first  part  of  the  process,  the  gains  should  be  laid 
from  the  exact  centre  of  the  stone,  for  both  bale  and 
driver.  If  the  old-fashioned  transverse  driver  is  used, 
it  is  better  to  have  boxes  to  drive  against.  After  these 
gains  are  ready  to  receive  their  irons,  the  bale  should 
be  first  inserted,  and  fastened  to  the  centre.  Before 
the  bale  is  inserted  to  its  place,  great  care  shoujd  be 
taken  that  the  gains  which  receive  it  are  smooth  at  the 
bottom,  and  exactly  of  the  same  depth ;  for  if  the  bale 
is  not  perfectly  level  at  each  end,  the  stone  cannot  b6 
made  to  drive  true,  and  will  always  get  out  of  balance 
as  soon  as  it  is  set  in  motion,  which  causes  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  to  the  miller  to  keep  the  spindle-neck  tight. 
Then  place  the  bale  in  the  gains.  The  stone  being 
level,  fasten  a  small  board  in  the  eye  of  the  stone — 
called  the  centre-board ;  then  find  the  exact  centre  of 
the  stone  on  the  board,  bore  a  hole  large  enough  to  admit 
a  plumb-line  through,  with  a  ball  and  fine  point ;  then 
move  the  ball  until  it  agrees  exactly  with  the  plumb- 
points  ;  then  it  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  centre  of  the 


128  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

stone.  Make  it  perfectly  fast  with  iron  wedges,  tapered 
a  little  for  the  purpose ;  then  fasten  the  boxes  to  the 
driver  by  means  of  four  wood  wedges,  allowing  at  least  one 
inch  at  each  end,  and  one  inch  on  the  reverse  side  from 
which  it  drives,  for  play  room.  Then  insert  the  driver 
and  boxes  into  the  gains  prepared  to  receive  them. 
Place  the  spindle  into  the  irons,  as  when  running,  and 
make  a  tram  to  go  from  the  spindle-neck  to  the  peri- 
phery of  the  stone,  similar  to  the  one  used  for  tramming 
the  spindle  to  the  centre  of  the  bed-stone,  with  a  piece 
long  enough  to  go  through  the  sweep  and  extend  per- 
pendicularly to  the  spindle  point,  where  it  should  go 
through  a  small  transverse  cap,  that  plays  on  the  spin- 
dle point,  seven  inches  long,  with  a  hole  through  it  to 
receive  the  point  of  the  spindle. 

This  is  what  is  called  a  tram  for  placing  the  driver  in 
its  proper  position.  To  drive  the  stone  by  them,  turn 
the  sweeps,  moving  the  driver  by  iron  wedges  driven  be- 
tween the  stone  and  boxes,  until  the  quill  touches  alike 
all  around  the  stone.  The  spindle  should  be  held  per- 
fectly plumb  until  completed.  Take  some  dough  or  clay 
and  plaster  it  well  on  the  outside  of  the  bale  and  driver, 
to  prevent  the  bed  from  running  out,  as  it  is  poured  in 
around  the  irons.  There  is  another  kind  of  driver  used, 
which  drives  by  the  bale,  called  a  swallow-tail  driver. 
This  kind  is  the  best,  as  it  saves  cutting  away  the  stone 
from  the  eye,  where  it  is  so  much  wanted,  and  is 
trammed  to  drive  just  as  the  other  kind,  by  chipping 
away  the  touching  parts  till  it  trams  perfectly  with  the 
driver  and  the  bale.     It  requires  room  for  play,  just  as 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  129 

the  other  kind,  and  is  much  better  as  a  driver,  by  its 
not  taking  up  so  much  room. 


REMARKS   ON   PACKING  FLOUR,  WITH  A  PACKER'S 
TABLE  FOR  THE  SAME. 

As  one  branch  of  the  business  connected  with  the 
flouring  mill,  the  packing  requires  some  attention  to  its 
department;  in  particular,  cleanliness  on  the  part  of  the 
packer  cannot  be  too  strictly  recommended.  The  next 
point  in  connection,  is  the  necessity  of  properly  preparing 
the  flour  barrels,  by  setting  all  the  hoops  before  nailing, 
and  then  using  just  enough  of  nails  in  each  barrel, 
which  should  not  be  less  than  one  dozen.  Then,  before 
the  flour  is  put  into  the  barrel,  each  mill  should  be  fur- 
nished with  a  portable  coal  furnace,  and  each  barrel 
should  be  well  aired  over  this  fire  previous  to  its  being 
packed.  This  will  purify  the  barrel  of  all  acids,  and 
gaseous  substances,  which  tend  to  sour  the  flour,  by  lactic 
acid  fermentation,  which  is  generated  from  substances  in 
oak  timber  if  not  thoroughly  dry.  Iji  marking  the  tare 
on  the  barrel,  it  should  be  done  on  the  scribed  end  that 
is  taken  out.  In  weighing  the  barrels,  some  mills  make 
a  rule  of  deducting  one  pound  for  the  shrinkage  of  the 
same,  but  in  all  cases  the  full  amount  of  flour  should  be 
allowed,  with  one  and  one-fourth  pound  for  waste. 
This  will  tend  materially  to  the  credit  of  the  mill  in  es- 
tablishing a  straight  brand.    Flour  barrels  packed  in  the 


130  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

Western  States  require  to  be  somewliat  heavier  than  those 
used  nearer  market,  and  well  hooped,  with  the  chime 
hoops  one  and  a  quarter  inches  wide,  weighing  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  pounds. 

PACKER'S  TABLE. 
Weight  of  bbls.  Tub  weight  When  packed. 

15  lbs 0  211  lbs. 

16  lbs 0 212  lbs. 

17  lbs 0  213  lbs. 

18  lbs 0  214  lbs. 

19  lbs 0  215  lbs. 

20  lbs 0  216  lbs. 

21  lbs 0  217  lbs. 

22  lbs 0  218  lbs. 

23  lbs 0 219  lbs. 

24  lbs 0  220  lbs. 

26  lbs 0  ..      221  lbs. 


REMARKS  ON  BRANDING  FLOUR  IN  BARRELS. 

This  part,  although  frequently  done  carelessly,  with- 
out sufficient  attention  to  its  neatness,  requires  the  mil- 
ler's attention,  to  see  that  the  quality  of  the  flour  is  equal 
to  the  insignia  it  bears.  This  is  an  essential  which 
every  respectable  mill  should  keep  inviolate.  All  good 
mills  of  first  class  should  have  at  least  two  brands,  su- 
perfine extra,  and  superfine.  First  quality  wheat,  if 
manufactured  properly,  will  bear  the  extra.  Inferior 
wheat  will  not.  and  second  grinding  should  never  be 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  131 

branded  higher  than  fine  in  any  case.  I  also  recom- 
mend two  colours  for  the  brands  of  each  mill:  Venetian 
red  for  second  brand,  and  light  blue  for  first  brand,  mixed 
with  spirits  of  turpentine,  put  on  with  a  soft  brush,  and 
branded  on  the  opposite  end  from  the  one  marked  with 
the  tare. 

The  packer  should  have  a  similar  table  to  this  in  front 
of  his  scales,  with  the  weight  of  the  tub  included. 


MAUKS'S  PATENT  BOLT. 

This  principle  of  constructing  bolts  has  been  but 
lately  introduced  to  the  milling  public,  and  called  by 
the  inventor,  a  hot  bolt.  The  term  hot  we  have  omitted. 
We  consider  the  improvement  regulated  entirely  by  a 
good  principle  of  natural  philosophy,  as  the  bolt  is  placed 
in  a  cylinder,  air-tight,  which  prevents  any  pressure  of 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  on  the  outside  of  the  bolt- 
ing-cloth, and  forms  a  draft  from  the  inside  of  the 
bolt.  As  large  quantities  of  air,  brought  from  the  stone 
and  elevators  into  the  bolt,  give  an  outward  pressure, 
by  which  the  meshes  of  the  cloth  are  always  kept  open ; 
consequently,  a  bolt  constructed  in  this  way  will  bolt 
nearly  as  fast  again  as  the  old  plan  of  construction. 

But  it  can  make  no  difference  as  to  the  state  in  which 
the  meal  is  in,  whether  hot  or  cold,  if  ground  properly ; 
and  in  all  cases  bolts  faster  and  more  freely  where  the 
meal  is  cool  than  otherwise,  as  it  is  known  the  finer  the 


132  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

meal  is  ground,  the  more  the  natural  element  of  moist- 
ure, which  the  grain  contains,  is  extracted,  which  gives 
flour  that  savory  feeling  when  ground  too  fine,  that  ope- 
rates like  paste  on  the  bolts.  This  invention  does  away 
with  a  great  many  useless  wheels,  and  tends  to  improve 
the  power  thereby.  But  when  adopted  for  merchant 
flour,  I  should  prefer  the  conveyor,  which  conducts  the 
flour,  to  be  separate  from  the  bolt,  as  used  by  the  in- 
ventor. 


ON  THE  INSPECTION  OF  FLOUR. 

The  duty  of  the  flour  inspector  is  one  which  requires 
a  vast  amount  of  experience  in  the  diff*erent  qualities  of 
flour,  to  perform  it  properly ;  and  no  inspector  of  flour 
should  be  allowed  to  hold  that  office,  who  is  not  a  prac- 
tical miller ;  and  as  public  officers  of  inspection  are  fast 
going  out  of  date,  much  to  the  credit  of  those  States 
where  this  office,  as  a  public  one,  is  abolished,  millers 
generally  will  stand  a  better  chance  in  this  respect.  It 
is  absolute  nonsense,  to  have  a  person  authorized  by 
legislative  enactment,  to  pass  his  judgment  on  this  great 
staple  of  our  country.  We  might  just  as  well  say  in- 
spectors are  necessary  to  inspect  cloth,  cotton,  or  any 
other  article  that  the  merchant  has  to  sell.  But  almost 
any  man  may  be  his  own  inspector,  if  he  considers  or 
becomes  acquainted  with  the  essentials  requisite  to  be 
considered  in  inspecting  flour,  and  they  are — first,  co- 
lour; the  degree  of  fines,  next;  and  these  constitute 
the  leading  principles  of  inspection.     For  all  samples 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  133 

of  flour  that  possess  a  bright-orange  cast,  and  feels 
lively,  and  possesses  a  fine  grit  on  feeling  it  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger, — such  a  sample  as  this  does  not 
require  four  cents  per  barrel  for  an  inspector  to  say  that 
it  is  good.  If  the  flour  is  too  specky,  it  will  not  pos- 
sess the  bright-orange  cast,  as  described,  but  exhibit  a 
grayish  colour,  soon  detected.  But  specks  in  flour, 
when  it  does  not  change  the  colour  of  it  to  a  gray,  is 
no  injury,  but  an  advantage, — for  the  flour  contains 
more  nutriment,  when  made  on  No.  8  bolting-cloth,  than 
the  finer  texture, — as  the  speck  of  flour  is  generally 
composed  of  the  glutinous  substance  contained  in  the 
wheat,  and  gives  that  body  to  flour  made  on  No.  8  cloth, 
which  flour  made  on  finer  cloth  does  not  possess.  Finer 
bolting-cloths  allow  all  the  starchy  part  of  the  wheat  to 
pass  through  them,  being  always  pulverized  finer  than 
the  gluten,  which  is  tougher  and  more  elastic ;  and  the 
less  of  the  latter,  the  more  valuable }  and  I  further  lay 
it  down  as  an  established  fact,  that  flour  possessing  a 
good  rich  orange-colour  should  never  deter  the  pur- 
chaser from  buying  it,  specks  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing. 

For  the  accommodation  of  dealers  in  the  staple  of 
flour,  a  better  plan  can  be  resorted  to  than  the  old  sys- 
tem, of  maintaining  an  officer  for  that  specific  purpose, 
as  follows : — The  board  of  trade  in  each  commercial 
city  should  have  a  register  of  all  flour-brands  coming 
for  sale  to  their  particular  markets.  This  register  should 
state  what  State  and  county  said  flour  came  from,  the 
name  of  the  mill,  and  all  particular  marks  on  the  same, 


134  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

and  also  the  quality  of  said  flour  when  registered,  in 
the  following  style, — as  fine  superfine  No.  1,  No.  2,  No. 
3, — these  being  the  highest,  or  extra  grade.  This  sys- 
tem would  have  a  desired  influence,  as  by  it  all  persons 
could  have  the  character  of  their  particular  mills  fully 
established,  according  to  the  quality  of  their  flour. 
This  register  should  be  established  by  some  municipal 
law,  and  monthly  report  of  said  register  be  made  and 
published  by  the  leading  commercial  papers  of  the  city, 
or  market,  where  such  register  is  kept. 

Any  city  or  market  adopting  the  foregoing  observa- 
tions, would  insure  a  benefit  equal  to  that  derived  now 
from  the  use  of  the  bank-note  detector. 


REPORT 


On  the  Breadstuffs  of  the  United  States, — their  relative 
value,  and  the  injury  which  they  sustain  hy  transport, 
warehousing,  (Sec. — By  Lewis  C.  Beck,  M.  D. 

EuTGERs'  College,     \ 
New  Brunswick,  JV.  J.,  Dec.  15,  1848.  J 

Sir  : — ^I  beg  leave  to  submit,  in  as  concise  a  manner 
as  possible,  the  results  of  my  researches  in  regard  to  the 
breadstufi's  of  the  United  States,  since  April  last.  The 
work  has  been  prosecuted  in  accordance  with  the  instruc- 
tions which  I  have  received  from  you :  and  I  hope  its 
execution,  thus  far,  will  commend  itself  to  your  favour 
and  to  that  of  the  public.     Being  impressed  with  its 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  135 

importance,  I  have  spared  no  pains  to  prepare  myself 
for  the  faithful  discharge  of  the  trust  with  which  you 
have  been  pleased  to  honour  me. 

I  deem  it  proper  to  state  distinctly,  that  my  constant 
aim  has  been  to  render  this  investigation  useful.  My 
object  has  been  to  show,  in  the  simplest  manner,  and 
with  as  few  technicalities  as  possible,  how  the  value  of 
the  various  breadstuffs  may  be  determined,  their  injury 
guarded  against,  and  their  adulterations  detected. 
Whilst  I  am  by  no  means  insensible  to  the  importance 
of  accuracy,  and  yield  a  willing  homage  to  those  who 
are  engaged  in  minute  and  careful  analyses,  I  supposed 
that  the  purpose  which  you  had  in  view  would  be  best 
accomplished  by  the  employment  of  such  processes  as 
may  be  easily  understood,  and  even  repeated,  by  all  those 
who  feel  sufficient  interest  in  the  subject  to  read  the 
description  which  I  shall  give  of  them.  I  concur  en- 
tirely in  the  remarks  made  by  a  reviewer  of  the  first 
report  on  coals  suited  to  the  (British)  steam  navy,  ^^That- 
the  neglect  of  government  to  aid  science  is  due,  in  a 
great  measure,  to  the  mistaken  views  of  scientific  men. 
They  have  too  often  overlooked  or  disregarded  those 
matters  which  have  a  practical  tendency,  which  poli- 
ticians alone  consider  of  importance.'' — ^'  Men  engaged 
in  maintaining  the  balance  of  power  and  regulating  the 
complicated  machinery  of  a  great  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing commonwealth,  however  capacious  their  minds, 
cannot  be  expected  to  entertain  the  theoretical  views  of 
the  philosopher,  who  sacrifices  his  knowledge  of  the 
world  to  his  love  of  science." 


136  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

I  thought  it  proper  thus  to  announce  the  plan  which 
has  been  adopted  in  these  researches,  to  render  them 
useful  to  the  many,  without  attempting  to  make  addi- 
tions to  the  already  accumulated  stores  of  the  few.  As 
the  people,  through  their  representatives,  have  furnished 
the  means  for  carrying  on  this  work,  they  are  entitled 
to  receive  all  the  benefits  which  are  to  be  derived  from  it. 

I  have  only  to  add,  that  my  attention,  thus  far,  has 
been  almost  exclusively  directed  to  wheat  and  wheat 
flour.  I  propose,  during  the  next  year,  should  the  work 
be  continued,  to  extend  the  examination  to  such  samples 
of  these  as  may  hereafter  be  received,  and  then  to  pro- 
ceed to  that  of  maize  and  maize  meal,  which  have  re- 
cently become  such  important  articles  of  export. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be  your  obedient  servant, 

Lewis  C.  Beck. 
To  the  Hon.  Edmund  Burke, 

Commissioner  of  Patents. 


REPORT. 

Agriculture,  commerce,  and  the  arts  constitute  the 
chief  business  of  the  industrious  portions  of  our  race, 
and  it  is  to  the  physical  peculiarities  of  a  country  that 
we  are  chiefly  to  refer  the  predominance  of  one  or  other 
of  these  pursuits.  Thus  England,  with  her  vast  mine- 
ral wealth  and  her  dense  population,  must,  almost  of 
necessity,  be  a  manufacturing  nation;   and,  although 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  137 

she  is  also  noted  for  her  extended  commerce  and  her 
improved  agriculture,  the  great  attention  which  she  has 
paid  to  the  latter  may,  perhaps,  be  fairly  ascribed  to 
those  peculiar  views  concerning  the  interchange  between 
nations  which  have  heretofore  prevailed.  The  rich  and 
valuable  mines  of  the  central  portions  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  the  numerous  arts  which  can  flourish  only 
in  their  immediate  vicinity,  must  ever  give  occupation 
to  a  large  portion  of  their  inhabitants.  Comparatively 
few  commercial  advantages  are  enjoyed  by  them,  and  the 
produce  of  their  agriculture  seldom  rises  above  the 
amount  which  is  necessary  for  the  supply  of  their  own 
immediate  wants.  In  all  these  countries,  therefore,  the 
failure  of  a  single  crop  is  the  cause  of  serious  apprehen- 
sion, and  in  some  of  them,  as  in  Austria,  although  a 
large  proportion  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, there  is  need  of  a  yearly  importation  of  bread- 
stuffs.  This  has  been  ascribed  to  a  defective  mode  of 
tillage,  but  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  it  arises,  in  part 
at  least,  if  not  entirely,  from  the  high  price  of  the  land. 
It  is  the  large  returns  which  the  farmer  must  extort 
from  the  soil  in  order  to  meet  the  interest  of  the  heavy 
investment,  which  discourages  him  in  his  efforts,  and 
which  at  length  has  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  amount 
of  the  agricultural  products.  All  the  appliances  of  sci- 
ence and  art  may  be  called  into  requisition  to  increase 
the  yield  of  the  soil,  but  every  improvement  of  this  kind 
only  increases  the  price  of  the  land  and  amount  of  rent 
which  must  be  raised  from  it.  When  we  look  at  the 
contrast  which  the  United  States  present  in  this  respect, 


138  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

we  need  not  wonder  that,  while  travellers  speak  in  rap- 
tures of  the  agriculture  of  France  and  Belgium,  Ger- 
many and  England,  the  famished  population  of  some  of 
those  countries  has  been  fed  by  the  surplus  produce  of 
a  comparatively  rude  mode  of  tillage. 

During  the  year  1847,  breadstuffs  to  the  value  of 
$43,000,000  were  exported  from  this  country  to  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  alone.  The  vast  agricultural  re- 
sources of  the  United  States  were  then  for  the  first  time 
duly  appreciated.  Notwithstanding  the  quantity  export- 
ed during  the  present  year  bears  no  proportion  to  that 
of  the  preceding  one,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  our 
country  is  destined  to  be  the  granary  of  the  world. 
We  cannot  boast  of  those  mineral  riches  which  are  found 
elsewhere ;  still,  deposits  of  iron  ore  and  coal,  those  most 
valuable  products,  exist  here  in  great  abundance.*  But 
our  chief  treasure  is  the  soil,  and  the  immense  extent  of 
our  republic,  and  the  liberal  policy  which  has  been  pur- 
sued in  regard  to  the  disposition  of  its  lands,  places  it 
in  the  power  of  almost  every  inhabitant  to  become  the 
owner  of  a  domain,  which  in  Europe  could  be  possessed 
only  by  a  favoured  few. 

It  is  a  common  mistake  that  land  which  is  in  the 

*  We  must  respectfully  dissent  from  the  learned  professor 
in  this  part  of  his  report,  believing  as  we  do,  that  no  portion  of 
the  globe,  known  to  either  the  ancients  or  moderns,  surpasses 
the  United  States  in  the  richness  and  purity  of  her  mine- 
rals ;  not  even  the  gold  of  Ophir  and  Tarshish  will  bear  com- 
parison with  the  products  of  the  El  Dorado  and  Sacramento 
of  California. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  139 

highest  state  of  cultivation,  and  yields  the  largest  crops, 
is  necessarily  the.  most  valuable.  It  is  stated  by  Bous- 
singault,  that  a  field  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pampeluna, 
where  therenl^of  land  is  extremely  low,  gave  a  profita- 
ble crop  of  wheat,  although  the  yield  was  not  more  than 
from  six  and  a  half  to  seven  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre, 
"  An  English  farmer,^'  says  Washington,  in  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  Arthur  Young,  ^^  must  have  a  very  different 
opinion  of  our  soil  when  he  hears  that  with  us  an  acre 
produces  no  more  than  eight  or  ten  bushels  of  wheat; 
but  he  must  not  forget  that  in  all  countries  where  land 
is  cheap  and  labour  is  dear,  the  people  prefer  cultivating 
much  to  cultivating  well.'' 

It  is  this  very  extent  of  our  country,  and  the  cheap- 
ness of  the  land,  which  now,  as  at  the  date  of  the  letter 
of  Washington,  contribute  to  render  our  comparatively 
rude  culture  the  most  profitable  in  the  world.  Thus, 
while  the  average  of  the  produce  of  wheat  in  the  United 
States  is  not  probably  above  15  or  16  bushels  to  the 
acre,  that  in  Germany  is  more  than  25  bushels;  in 
England,  25  or  26;  and  in  France,  24.  Still,  as  has 
been  already  stated,  the  amount  of  breadstufis  raised 
here,  far  exceeds  that  produced  in  either  of  the  coun- 
tries above  named.  And  the  same  consideration,  viz. 
cheapness  of  land,  together  with  the  rapid  and  cheap 
rate  at  which,  by  machinery,  the  crop  is  harvested  and 
made  ready  for  the  miller,  must  give  to  the  Western 
States  and  Territories  great  advantages  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  cereal  grain. 

As  there  is  no  probability  that,  for  many  years  to 


140 

come,  our  population  will  be  over-crowded,  and  the  price 
of  good  cultivable  land  be  much  increased,  it  is  easy  to 
see  what  must  become  the  leading  occupation  of  the 
multitude  who  will  here  seek  refuge  from  the  poverty 
and  oppression  of  other  countries.  The  truth  of  this 
proposition  will  probably  be  quite  apparent  to  those  whose 
attention  has  been  directed  to  the  subject.  But  a  large 
number  of  our  citizens  have  no  just  idea  of  the  agricul- 
tural resources  of  the  United  States.  One  object  of 
this  report,  therefore,  is  to  spread  out  the  facts,  and  to 
give  them  the  widest  publicity;  to  show,  indeed,  that 
while  commerce  and  the  arts  must  give  employment  to 
a  great  number  of  persons,  our  great  business  is  agricul- 
ture; and  that  the  true  interests  of  the  country  will  be 
promoted  by  giving  to  this  pursuit  all  necessary  encou- 
ragement. 

I  have  said  that  our  mode  of  culture  is  still  compara- 
tively rude.  It  was  quaintly  remarked  to  a  traveller,  by 
the  gardener  of  Drummond  Castle,  that,  *^If  science  once 
gets  into  the  farmer's  ground,  it  penetrates  into  the 
very  heart  of  a  nation.'^  This  is  perhaps  true ;  but  it 
must  be  confessed  that,  thus  far,  the  influence  of  science 
upon  agriculture  has  been  very  trifling,  when  compared 
with  the  vast  improvements  which  it  has  effected  in  the 
arts.  The  difference  proceeds  principally  from  two 
causes,  assigned  by  Count  Chaptal :  *'  The  first  is,  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  phenomena  offered  to  us  by  agri- 
culture are  the  effects  of  the  laws  of  vitality,  which  go- 
vern the  functions  of  plants,  and  these  laws  are  still,  in 
a  great  measure,  unknown  to  us ;  whilst  in  the  arts. 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  141 

which  are  exercised  upon  rude  and  inorganic  matter,  all 
is  regulated,  all  is  produced  by  the  action  either  of  phy- 
sical laws  only,  or  of  simple  affinity,  which  are  known 
to  us.  The  second  cause  is,  that,  in  order  to  apply  the 
physical  sciences  to  agriculture,  it  is  necessary  to  study 
their  operations  profoundly,  not  only  in  the  closet,  but 
in  the  field.''  It  will  not,  therefore,  appear  surprising 
that  the  researches  which  have  been  made  in  regard  to 
plants  have  often  assumed  a  wrong  direction,  and  have 
not  led  to  those  important  results  which  were  promised 
upon  the  one  side  and  expected  upon  the  other.  Thus 
most  of  the  analyses  of  the  proximate  principles  of 
plants,  not  having  been  made  upon  such  as  are  in  a  per- 
fectly pure  state,  are  to  be  considered  only  as  approxi- 
mations of  the  truth.  The  same  remark  will,  in  a  great 
measure,  apply  to  the  numerous  determinations  of  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the  ash  obtained  by  the  com- 
bustion of  the  grains  used  as  breadstuffs.  "  The  grain 
is  an  assemblage  of  various  distinct  parts,  differing  from 
one  another  in  composition,  and  varying  also  very  much 
in  their  relative  proportions.  So,  also,  the  dried  stem  of 
a  plant,  the  entire  straw  of  a  cereal  grass,  may  be  burn- 
ed in  like  manner.  But  this,  too,  is  an  assemblage  of 
many  parts.  The  exterior  less  vascular  portion,  the 
interior  full  of  vessels,  the  fluids  which  circulate  through 
them,  all  contain  their  peculiar  inorganic  substances, 
and  all  vary  almost  endlessly  in  their  relative  propor- 
tions." 

Similar  objections  might  be  urged  against  the  ana- 
lyses  of  soils,  which  have  been  so  vigorously  prose- 


142  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

cuted  by  many  chemists.  That  the  facts  which  have 
thus  accumulated  may  have  some  value,  is  not  to  be 
doubted ;  but  they  must,  after  all,  be  considered  as  only 
introductory  to  researches  conducted  with  a  more  just 
appreciation  of  their  true  influence  upon  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture.  It-  is  to  be  feared  that,  in  many 
cases,  these  almost  useless  labours  have  been  suggested 
by  the  crude  and  hasty  generalizations  which,  unfortu- 
nately, within  a  few  years  past,  have  too  often  usurped 
the  place  of  patient  inquiry.  A  recent  writer  has  well 
observed,  that,  ^'  Of  the  classes  which  have  been  thus 
led  away,  there  has  been  none  which  has  been  so  far 
misguided  as  the  sober  one  of  farmer.  It  is  to  him  that 
the  vegetable  quack  appeals,  oflFering,  in  the  application 
of  chemical  manures,  electricity,  magnetism,  and  other 
agents,  harvests  more  golden  than  the  world  had  ever 
seen  before." 

I  trust  it  will  not  be  inferred  from  any  of  the  remarks 
which  I  have  made,  that  I  undervalue  the  importance 
of  physical  science  in  the  improvement  of  agriculture. 
On  the  contrary,  I  doubt  not  that,  with  a  right  appre- 
ciation of  its  objects  and  a  true  direction  of  its  labours,  it 
is  destined  to  contribute  greatly  to  increasing  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  soil.  But  such  results  cannot  be  imme- 
diately realized.  "  Years  of  experiment  must  pass  by, 
numerous  failures  must  be  experienced,  before  the  real 
advantages  of  scientific  farming  will  be  evident."  It  is 
sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  the  false  expectations  which 
have  been,  from  time  to  time,  held  out  by  visionary 
men,  may  not  have  the  effect  of  exciting,  in  the  minds 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  143 

of  agriculturists;  a  prejudice  against  all  the  improve- 
ments  which  may  hereafter  be  proposed. 

The  chief  bread  stuffs  of  the  United  States  are  wheat, 
rye,  maize,  and  buckwheat.  Of  these,  the  first  is  by  far 
the  most  important,  and  it  is  to  its  history,  culture,  and 
chemical  examination,  that  particular  attention  is  now  to 
be  directed. 

Wheat. — Wheat  is  the  principal  breadstuff  of  the 
United  States  and  of  most  European  nations.  This,  as 
well  as  the  other  cereal  grasses,  has  probably  come  to 
us  from  the  East;  but  it  has  been  so  much  changed 
and  improved  by  culture,  that  its  connection  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  traced  to  any  species  of  the  genus  now 
known  to  be  growing  wild.  Of  all  the  cereals,  it  is  that 
which  requires  most  heat,  and  its  culture  first  begins  to 
be  of  importance  below  60°  north  latitude  in  Europe, 
and  considerably  below  that  line  on  our  continent.  From 
the  meteorological  observations  which  have  been  made, 
we  infer  that  a  mean  heat  of  at  least  39°  Fahrenheit  is 
necessary  for  the  growth  of  wheat,  and  that  during  three 
or  four  months.  The  mean  summer  heat  must  rise 
above  55°  Fahrenheit.  It  does  not,  however,  bear  tro- 
pical heat  well ;  in  countries  within  the  tropics,  it  first 
occurs  at  altitudes  which,  in  climate,  correspond  with 
the  sub-tropical  and  temperate  zones. 

There  is  a  fact  stated  by  the  author  just  quoted  which 
exhibits,  in  a  striking  manner,  the  advantages  our  coun- 
try must  possess  for  raising  and  transporting  the  produce 
of  this  important  cereal.  It  is,  that  although  wheat  is 
very  productive  and  of  excellent  quality  in  Chili  and 


144 

the  Republic  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  immense  quantities 
are  sent  to  Peru,  and  even  around  Cape  Horn  to  Rio 
Janeiro,  yet  North  American  flour  is  sold  at  the  market 
of  Valparaiso,  and  the  bakers  are  obliged  to  buy  it,  as 
it  is  cheaper  than  the  flour  made  in  the  country,  because 
there  are  no  roads  in  the  interior,  and  wages  are  exceed- 
ingly high  from  want  of  sufficient  hands. 

There  are  few  parts  of  the  United  States  in  which 
wheat  may  not  be  raised ;  but  the  productiveness  of  the 
crop  is  influenced  by  various  circumstances,  as  soil,  cli- 
mate, and  expense  of  transport  to  the  great  commercial 
depots.  These,  and  the  more  profitable  cultivation  of 
other  articles,  as  tobacco,  rice,  cotton,  and  the  sugar- 
cane, have  nearly  fixed  the  southern  limit  of  the  wheat- 
growing  region  of  the  United  States  in  North  Carolina. 
The  particular  districts,  however,  in  which  the  culture 
of  this  cereal  is  most  successfully  prosecuted,  are  the 
western  parts  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
and  the  north  western  States  and  Territories.  The  rich 
and  virgin  soil  of  the  western  prairies  seems  to  be  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat ;  and  the  great 
lines  of  communication  which  are  already  established 
between  these  and  the  Atlantic  cities  afford  every  faci- 
lity for  the  transport  of  the  surplus  produce. 

It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  profits  of  the 
culture  of  this  cereal  do  not  depend  upon  the  yield  per 
acre,  but  upon  the  cheapness  of  the  land  and  the  eco- 
nomy practised  in  its  management.  The  want  of  pre- 
cise information  upon  these  cardinal  points  renders  the 
statements  which  have  been  made,  in  regard  to  the  pro- 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  145 

ductiveness  of  wheat  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  of 
little  practical  value.  Thus,  when  we  are  told  by  Meyen 
that  in  Prussia  the  average  produce  of  wheat  is  not  more 
than  five  or  six  fold  of  the  seed ;  that  in  Hungary  and 
Croatia  it  is  from  eight  to  ten  fold ;  and  that  in  some 
parts  of  Mexico  the  produce  in  favourable  years  is  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-five  fold ; — the  information  is  of 
no  use  to  the  farmer,  because  the  relative  expenses  of 
the  culture  and  the  value  of  the  crop  are  not  stated. 

Notwithstanding  what  has  been  said  concerning  the 
profitable  culture  of  wheat  in  large  portions  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  probability  that  the  great  West  will  here- 
after furnish  the  principal  supply  for  export,  we  should 
by  no  means  overlook  those  causes  which  exert  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  productiveness  and  quality  of  this  grain. 
It  has  been  ascertained  without  doubt  that  the  real  value 
of  wheat,  and  of  the  other  cereals  and  breadstufi's,  de- 
pends mainly  upon  the  proportion  of  gluten  and  albu- 
men which  they  contain — their  starch,  glucose,  and 
dextrine,  or  gum,  not  being  considered  nutritive.  It 
appears,  also,  that  wheat  exceeds  all  the  other  cereals 
in  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  which  it  yields. 
Another  advantage  which  it  possesses  is,  that  it  fur- 
nishes also  a  greater  quantity  of  flour ;  for  fourteen 
pounds  of  wheat  yield  thirteen  pounds  of  flour,  while 
fourteen  pounds  of  oats  yield  only  eight  pounds,  and  an 
equal  quantity  of  barley  but  twelve  pounds. 

That  wheat  is  peculiarly  sensible  to  efi*ects  of  soil  and 
climate  appears  to  be  a  well-established  fact.  It  is 
stated  that  even  in  difi"erent  parts  of  England,  the  crops 


146  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

and  their  produce  are  very  various.  The  Sicilian  and 
southern  wheat  generally  contains  a  larger  proportion 
of  gluten  than  that  from  more  northern  countries. 
This,  no  doubt,  arises  from  its  more  rapid  growth,  its 
harder  and  tougher  grain,  and  its  less  proportion  of 
moisture.  Hence,  also,  it  keeps  better,  and  commands 
a  higher  price  in  market,  especially  when  required  for 
exportation.  I  have  reason  to  believe,  however,  that 
the  superiority  of  southern  wheat  has  usually  been  over- 
estimated, and  that  the  proof  almost  always  adduced  of 
its  containing  more  gluten  than  that  from  the  north,  viz. 
its  employment  in  the  manufacture  of  macaroni  and 
vermicelli,  is  by  no  means  conclusive. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  connected  with  the 
subject  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour  is  the  proportion  of 
water  or  moisture  which  they  contain.  We  have  the 
high  authority  of  Boussingault  for  the  statement,  that, 
in  France,  "it  is  undoubtedly  in  consequence  of  the 
the  large  quantity  of  water  which  the  northern  wheats 
contain,  that  we  meet  with  such  indiflferent  success  when 
we  attempt  to  keep  them  for  any  length  of  time  in  our 
granaries.  The  wheat  of  Alsace,  for  example,  fre- 
quently contains  16  to  20  per  cent,  of  moisture ;  and  I 
have  ascertained  by  various  experiments,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  keep  it  without  change  in  vessels  hermeti- 
cally sealed.  To  secure  its  keeping,  the  proportion  of 
water  must  be  reduced  from  8  to  10  per  cent.,  and  this 
is  nearly  the  quantity  of  moisture  contained  in  the  hard 
and  horny  wheat  of  warm  countries. 

In  five  analyses  of  London  flours,  by  Mr.  J.  Mitchell; 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  147 

the  proportion  of  water  varies  from  14.10  to  17.40  per 
cent. 

The  proportions  of  water  in  the  above  samples  range 
much  higher  than  those  given  in  the  analyses  of  various 
flours  performed  by  Yanquelin,  which  are  from  8  to  12 
per  cent.  They  are  also  higher  than  those  in  the  United 
States  flours,  the  range  of  moisture  being,  in  the  samples 
which  I  have  analyzed,  from  12  to  14  per  cent. 

This  diff'erence  in  the  proportion  of  water,  which 
seems  to  be  a  matter  of  so  much  consequence,  is  un- 
doubtedly, in  part,  due  to  the  difi'erence  in  the  climate 
of  the  region  in  which  the  wheat  is  grown.  This,  in- 
deed, is  so  well  understood  to  be  true,  that  the  amount 
of , bread  obtained  from  difi*erent  kinds  of  wheat  flour  is 
referred  to  the  same  cause.  Thus  "  it  has  been  shown, 
by  a  comparative  experiment  tried  some  years  ago  upon 
Scotch  and  English  wheat,  of  apparently  equal  quality, 
that  a  quarter  of  the  latter,  though  yielding  rather  less 
flour,  yet,  when  made  into  bread,  gave  13  pounds  more 
than  the  former.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  greater 
strength  of  sunshine,  under  the  climate  of  England, 
having  an  effect  upon  the  grain  when  ripening,  which 
occasions  the  flour  to  absorb  more  water  in  the  forma- 
tion of  dough.'' 

From  experiments  which  seem  to  be  trustworthy,  it 
appears  that  the  Alabama,  and  the  southern  wheat  flours 
generally,  yield  more  bread  than  the  northern  or  western. 
The  gain  in  favour  of  the  Alabama,  as  compared  with 
the  Cincinnati,  is  said  to  be  20  per  cent.  It  is  also 
stated,  by  one  of  the  most  extensive  London  bakers, 


148  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

that  American  flour  will  absorb  8  or  10  per  cent,  more 
of  its  own  weight  of  water,  in  manufacturing  it  into 
bread  or  biscuit,  than  the  English  wheat.  The  English 
wheat,  of  the  same  variety  with  the  American,  is  inva- 
riably a  larger  and  plumper  berry.  This  is  attributed 
to  the  longer  time  required  for  ripening  in  that  compa- 
ratively cooler  and  damper  climate.  The  American,  on 
the  contrary,  in  ripening  under  a  hot  sun,  evaporates  a 
large  proportion  of  water,  and  leaves  the  farina  in  a 
more  condensed  state ;  and  when  exposed  again  to  mois- 
ture in  cooling,  it  absorbs  the  additional  quantity  above 
stated.  This  is  an  important  fact,  of  which  the  dealer 
and  consumer  should  be  fully  aware. 

No  apology  is  necessary  for  the  details  which  will  -be 
presented  concerning  the  effect  of  water  or  moisture 
upon  this  cereal,  as  it  is  a  subject  worthy  of  the  most 
serious  consideration.  Although,  as  has  been  observed, 
the  proportion  of  water  in  the  wheat  and  wheat  flour  of 
the  United  States  is  generally  less  than  in  those  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  the  north  of  Europe,  it  is  often  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  cause  great  losses,  especially  when 
shipped  to  tropical  countries.  So  early  as  the  year  1814, 
attention  was  directed  to  this  in  a  valuable  series  of  pa- 
pers published  by  Mr.  Jonas  Humbert,  of  New  York,  a 
large  dealer  in  flour,  and  at  one  time  a  deputy  inspector 
of  that  article:  He  states,  that  since  the  Revolution, 
the  price  of  the  New  York  wheat  flour,  in  the  markets 
of  Europe  and  the  West  Indies,  had  been  gradually  fall- 
ing below  that  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  He  as- 
serts, as  the  result  of  his  own  experiments,  that  the  New 


AND  millwright's  assistant.  149 

York  flour*  is  equal  to  that  obtained  from  wheat  raised 
in  any  other  State  or  country ;  and  he  attributes  the 
deterioration  in  the  price  of  the  former  to  carelessness 
on  the  part  of  those  who  are  engaged  in  its  preparation 
and  shipment.  Among  the  points  which  he  enumerated 
are,  a  want  of  attention  to  the  ventilation  and  proper 
drying  of  the  grain  before  it  is  ground,  the  rapid  and 
improper  mode  of  grinding,  re-grinding  the  middlings, 
and  mixing  therewith  the  portion  first  ground,  and  also 
the  still  more  objectionable  practice,  perhaps  still  fol- 
lowed, of  mixing  old  and  spoiled  flour  with  newly-ground 
wheat. 

It  is  stated  that  in  Poland,  where  the  ventilation  and 
drying  are  continued  for  some  time,  wheat  has  been  pre- 
served sound  and  good  for  half  a  century ;  its  age  never 
does  it  injury,  and  such  wheat  is  said  to  yield  handsomer 
and  better  flour  than  that  obtained  from  the  grain  more 
recently  harvested.  In  Dantzic,  the  preparation  for 
keeping  wheat   continues   for  a   year,   and  sometimes 

*  We  entirely  concur  with  Mr.  Humbert  in  the  statement — 
New  York  flour  being  equal  to  that  obtained  from  wheat  raised 
in  any  other  State ;  knowing,  as  we  do,  that  at  least  one-half 
of  the  flour  made  in  that  State  is  manufactured  from  wheat 
grown  in  the  western  States,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Wis- 
consin, and  Illinois  ;  and  also  the  want  of  proper  attention  to 
properly  drying  the  grain  before  grinding,  by  which  it  might 
be  cleansed  from  all  impure  substances,  occasioned  by  expo- 
sure to  dampness,  which  creates  decomposition  of  the  grain, 
and  renders  it  useless  for  manufacturing  into  good  flour,  with- 
out some  instantaneous  remedy ;  and  drying  stops  further 
decomposition. — The  Author. 
13* 


150  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

longer ;  after  this  period,  it  is  often  kept  for  seven  years 
perfectly  sound  in  the  large  granaries  of  that  place,  al- 
though surrounded  by  the  sea. 

.  In  regard  to  American  wheat  and  wheat  flour,  it  may 
be  remarked,  that  the  proportion  of  water  naturally  ex- 
isting in  them  is  often  increased  by  carelessness  in  har- 
vesting the  grain,  and  in  its  transport  and  storage.  In  one 
sample  of  Indiana  wheat  flour  recently  analyzed,  which 
was  sour,  and  had  but  little  more  than  one-half  the 
usual  quantity  of  gluten,  the  injury  was  probably 
caused  by  the  hurried  mode  of  packing,  for  the  changes 
above  noticed  occurred  before  the  opening  of  summer. 
Sometimes,  however,  our  flour  is  spoiled  by  being  stored 
in  damp,  warm,  and  ill-ventilated  warehouses.  The 
books  of  one  inspector  of  the  city  of  New  York  shows 
that,  in  1847,  he  inspected  218,679  barrels  of  sour  and 
musty  flour.  He  certifies  that  in  this  amount  he  is  of 
opinion  that  there  was  a  loss  sustained  of  $250,000. 
But,  as  no  flour  that  is  known  to  be  sour  or  bad  is  in- 
spected, this  statement  gives  a  very  imperfect  idea  of 
the  loss  incurred,  even  in  that  city.  The  total  amount 
of  loss  for  the  whole  United  States,  arising  from  chemi- 
cal changes  in  breadstuffs  by  internal  moisture,  has  been 
estimated  at  from  $3,000,000  to  $5,000,000. 

Some  remarks  upon  this  subject,  recently  published 
by  Mr.  Brondgeest,  of  Hamilton,  Canada  West,  deserve 
to  be  here  introduced.  This  gentleman  has  paid  much 
attention  to  the  preservation  of  food,  both  as  a  merchant 
and  as  president  of  the  board  of  trade  of  Montreal  and 
of  Hamilton.     He  notices  an  article  on  the  "  Preserva- 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  151 

tion  of  Food/'  in  the  January  number  of  the  Westmin- 
ster, the  author  of  which  proposes  the  exclusion  of  air, 
by  an  air-pump  or  otherwise,  as  a  remedy  for  injuries 
sustained  by  breadstuffs ;  and  very  justly  observes  that 
these  extreme  measures  are  wholly  unnecessary,  as  ar- 
rangements perfectly  feasible  will  answer  the  purpose. 
He  admits  the  necessity  of  something  being  done,  as 
the  present  system  is  wasteful,  and  contrary,  in  many 
respects,  to  common  sense  3  the  warehousing  of  grain  is 
defective  in  every  point  of  view.  The  common  mode 
of  shipping  wheat  or  other  grain  in  bulks  is  the  cause 
of  injury  with  American  grain,  and,.  I  doubt  not,  also 
with  the  European.  The  emptying  of  grain  loose  into 
barges  not  over  dry ;  spray  and  moisture  on  the  voyage 
to  the  shipping  port;  exposure  to  the  weather  while 
being  shipped,  damp  lining  boards,  damp  vessels,  damp 
during  the  voyage,  and  then  again  being  exposed  in  a 
lighter,  and  put  away  in  a  damp  warehouse,  or  in  a  low 
situation  on  the  bank  of  a  river ; — all  tend  to  the  de- 
struction even  of  the  finest  particles  of  grain. 

As  remedies  for  all  these  injurious  influences,  Mr. 
Brondgeest  proposes  the  shipment  of  grain  in  barrels, 
like  flour,  and  the  proper  kiln-drying  of  such  varieties 
as  are  known  not  to  keep  well.  The  souring  of  flour, 
either  on  the  river  or  sea  voyage,  or  after  warehousing, 
he  adds,  '^  can  be  perfectly  prevented  by  the  use  of  the 
kiln,  either  to  the  flour,  or  the  wheat  prior  to  grinding;* 

*  In  all  cases,  the  drying  and  extracting  of  moisture  should 
be  done  before  the  grain  is  ground. — Author. 


152  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

one-third  to  one-fifth  of  the  wheat  being  highly  dried, 
makes  the  whole  keep  perfectly  for  years ;  and  that 
third  or  fifth  may  be  of  the  cheap  spring  grain,  making 
much  stronger  and  better  flour,  but  which,  if  not  kiln- 
dried,  would  sour  the  whole/^ 

In  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  dated 
March,  1844,  there  are  some  statements  of  interest  in 
regard  to  kiln-dried  flour  and  meal.  From  these  it 
appears,  that  Ohio  flour,  after  having  been  subjected  to 
the  drying  process,  was  kept  in  the  southern  and  South 
American  ports  in  good  merchantable  order,  and  in 
weather  in  which  other  flour  not  thus  prepared  invaria- 
bly spoiled.  The  process  of  drying  here  noticed  was 
conducted  by  the  employment  of  hot  air ;  and  Mr.  Grill, 
who  claims  the  invention,  states  that  18  pounds  of  water 
are  thus  expelled  from  a  barrel  of  flour. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  removal 
of  a  portion  of  the  water  which  wheat  flour  and  maize 
meal  naturally  contain,  is  the  easiest  and  best  means 
of  preserving  them.  But  the  drying  process,  simple  as 
it  may  seem,  requires  to  be  carried  on  with  great  care. 
The  passage  of  the  grain  or  flour,  however  rapidly,  over 
highly-heated  surfaces,  is  apt  to  scorch,  and  thus  give 
them  an  unpleasant  flavour.  From  the  rapid  evolution 
of  the  moisture,  in  the  form  of  steam,  by  the  heat  thus 
applied,  unless  proper  ventilation  be  also  secured,  fur- 
ther injury  will  probably  result.  The  steam,  again  con- 
densing into  water  upon  the  cooling  of  the  flour,  may 
accumulate  in  particular  parts  of  the  mass  operated  on, 
and  thus,  perhaps,  render  it  at  least  equally  as  liable  to 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  153 

injury  as  it  would  have  been  without  the  employment 
of  this  process. 

Another  fact,  which  I  have  observed  in  those  samples 
of  wheat  flour  that  have  been  exposed  to  a  degree  of  heat 
high  enough  to  expel  all  the  water,  is,  that  the  gluten  is 
less  tough  and  elastic — a  proof  that  its  quality  has  been 
impaired.  It  is  probable  that  the  proportions  of  dex- 
trine and  glucose  may  thus  also  be  increased  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  starch.  Under  these  circumstances,  a 
subsequent  exposure  to  moisture  and  a  slight  elevation 
of  temperature,  establishes  the  lactic  acid  fermentation, 
which,  I  suppose,  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  souring  of 
flour. 

The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  artificial  drying 
are  more  fully  attained  by  the  invention  patented  by 
Mr.  J.  R.  Stafi'ord,  in  1847,  than  by  any  other  plan 
with  which  I  am  acquainted.  It  is  based  upon  the  pro- 
cess for  drying  organic  bodies  usually  adopted  in  the 
laboratory.  The  grain  or  flour  is  brought  into  contact 
with  a  surface  of  metal  heated  by  steam,  and  a  due  de- 
gree of  ventilation,  so  important  to  the  completion  of 
the  drying,  is  secured.  As  the  heat  is  not  raised  above 
that  of  boiling  water,  there  is  no  danger  of  injuring  the 
quality,  colour,  or  flavour  of  the  substances  subjected 
to  its  action.  The  heat  is,  moreover,  uniform,  and  the 
expense  is  said  to  be  less  than  that  of  the  mode  of  dry- 
ing heretofore  generally  adopted.  By  Mr.  Stafibrd's 
apparatus,  16  or  17  pounds  of  water  are  expelled  from 
each  barrel  of  flour ;  this  reduces  the  proportion  of  wa- 
ter to  four  or  five  per  cent.,  an  amount  too  small  to  bo 


154  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

productive  of  injury.  Absolute  dryness  cannot  be  easily 
attained,  except  by  a  long  exposure  of  the  flour  to  the 
heat,  and  it  is  not  required  for  its  preservation ;  a  re- 
duction of  the  amount  of  water  to  the  small  per  centage. 
just  stated,  has  been  found  to  be  amply  sufficient  to 
secure  this  object.  I  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  render  a 
more  important  service  to  dealers  in  breadstuff's,  than  to 
recommend  strongly  the  employment  of  this  or  a  simi- 
lar process  of  drying. 

After  the  proper  ventilation  and  drying  of  the  grain 
has  been  eff'ected,  there  is  still  another  point  deserving 
of  some  consideration.  This  is  the  absorptive  power  of 
the  different  kinds  of  flour,  which  I  have  found  by  ex- 
periment to  be  subject  to  considerable  variation.  The 
amount  of  moisture  absorbed  by  the  various  samples 
which  have  been  tried,  after  having  been  brought  to  a 
state  of  absolute  dryness,  ranges  from  8  to  11.65  per 
cent.,  by  an  exposure  to  the  air  of  a  room  for  from  18 
to  24  hours.  This  difference  in  the  hygrometic  charac- 
ter of  flours  must,  I  think,  have  an  influence  upon  their 
preservation,  and  will  perhaps  account  for  the  fact,  that 
with  the  same  degree  of  carelessness  and  the  same  ex- 
posure, some  kinds  are  more  liable  to  spoil  than  others. 
The  remedies  for  all  the  difficulties  to  be  apprehended 
from  this  source,  are  the  employment  of  tight  barrels, 
and  the  avoidance  of  all  unnecessary  exposure  of  their 
contents  to  the  air. 

Some  remarks  may  be  added,  more  definitely  to  ex- 
plain the  various  modes  in  which  flour,  especially,  is 
injured  by  the  presence  of  an  undue  proportion  of  water, 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  155 

under  the  influence  of  a  warm  climate.  The  general 
result  is  a  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  gluten,  or  such 
a  change  in  its  quality  as  renders  it  unfit  to  produce 
good  panification.  It  sometimes  also  favours  the  forma- 
tion of  sporules  of  different  kinds  of  mushrooms,  which 
are  afterwards  developed  in  the  bread. 

Dumas  states,  that  the  wheat  of  1841  exhibited,  in 
1842,  during  a  very  warm  summer,  this  defect  in  a  very 
great  degree.  When  these  mushrooms  were  developed, 
the  temperature  was  much  elevated,  and  the  bread  soon 
disappeared,  leaving  only  a  reddish  and  disgusting  mass. 

The  number  of  sporules  was  much  diminished  by  the 
thorough  washing  of  the  infected  grain,  followed  by 
prompt  desiccation.  By  reducing  the  proportion  of 
water,  increasing  the  dose  of  salt,  and  finally  by  raising 
the  temperature  of  the  oven,  the  development  was  in  a 
measure  prevented. 

A  few  years  since,  I  observed  reddish  sporules,  similar 
to  those  above  noticed,  in  a  sample  of  New  Jersey  flour. 
The  change  took  place  in  twenty-four  hours  after  it  had 
been  made  into  paste  with  water.  On  repeating  the 
experiment,  the  same  result  followed. 

According  to  Dumas,  moisture  and  heat,  which  often 
cause  such  changes  in  the  most  important  constituent 
of  wheat  flour,  produce  very  little  effect  upon  the  starch 
which  it  contains.  Although  it  is  with  some  hesitation 
that  I  dissent  from  such  high  authority,  the  following 
facts  appear  to  me  to  show  that  this  idea  is  an  incor- 
rect one ; — 

Starch  is  known  to  be  composed  of  particles  which 


156  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

are  insoluble  in  cold  water;  butwhen  exposed  to  a  heat 
of  180°  F.,  the  pellicle  of  the  grain  bursts,  and  the 
contents  are  liberated.  In  a  state  of  solution,  it  is 
quickly  converted  into  dextrine  and  glucose,  or  grape- 
sugar,  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  diastase.* 
If  this  mixture  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  for  a  few  days, 
it  acquires  a  new  property,  viz.,  that  of  converting  the 
glucose  into  lactic  acid.  This  is  denominated  the  lactic 
acid  fermentation;  and,  as  I  have  before  suggested,  it 
is  probably  one  of  the  causes  of  the  souring  of  flour, 
when  exposed  to  high  summer  heats  in  its  ordinary 
moist  condition.  Hence,  it  will  be  found  that,  while 
in  sour  flour  the  quantity  of  gluten  is  usually  dimin- 
ished, or  its  quantity  injured,  the  proportions  of  glucose 
and  dextrine  are  also,  in  many  cases,  increased  at  the 
expense  of  the  starch — a  change  which  precedes  the  de- 
velopment of  the  lactic  fluid. 

One  of  the  best  modes  of  determining  the  real  value 
of  wheat  and  other  flours,  is  to  examine  the  bread  made 
from  them.  The  process  of  panification  brings  out  all 
their  defects;  and  as  the  researches  upon  breadstufi"s 
are  conducted  chiefly  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  their 
suitableness  for  the  manufacture  of  bread,  it  affords  a 
good  standard  of  comparison  for  the  various  samples 
subjected  to  experiment.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  bread  is  sometimes  adulterated  for  the 
very  purpose  of  enabling  those  who  are  engaged  in  its 

*  This  is  a  peculiar  nitrogenous  principle,  which  exists  in 
the  grain  of  the  cereals  after  germination  commences. 


■V 


AND    millwright's    ASSISTANT.  157 

fabrication  to  use  the  poorer  kinds  of  flour.  Thus, 
Dumas  states  that  in  Belgium  and  the  north  of  France, 
sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol)  has  long  been  intro- 
duced into  the  manufacture  of  bread.  By  the  employ- 
ment of  this  salt,  the  bakers  can  use  flour  of  middling 
and  mixed  quality ;  less  labour  is  required  in  its  prepa- 
ration, the  panification  is  more  speedy,  and  by  its  addi- 
tion a  larger  quantity  of  water  is  taken  up. 

The  use  of  alum,  in  the  fabrication  of  bread,  seems 
to  have  been  practised  from  a*  remote  period.  This,  it 
is  said,  also  secures  to  the  baker  the  advantage  of  em- 
ploying inferior  kinds  of  wheat  flour,  and  even  of  mix- 
ing with  the  farina  of  beans  and  peas,  without  appa- 
rently injuring  the  quality  of  the  bread. 

The  alkaline  carbonates,  the  carbonate  of  magnesia, 
chalk,  pipe-clay,  and  plaster  of  Paris,  have  all  been  used 
either  to  correct  the  acidity  of  damaged  flour,  to  pre- 
serve the  moisture,  or  to  increase  the  weight  and  white- 
ness of  the  bread.  But  it  need  scarcely  be  observed, 
that  all  these  substances,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of 
small  additions  of  the  alkaline  carbonates,  must  render 
the  bread  unwholesome.  Fortunately,  however,  the 
"presence  of  most  of  them  can  be  quite  easily  detected. 

Other  frauds  which  have  been  resorted  to,  are  more 
difiicult  of  detection ;  but  these  are,  happily,  less  preju- 
dicial to  health,  although  not  always  perfectly  harmless. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  adulteration  of 
wheat  flour  with  potato  starch,  the  flour  of  leguminous 
plants,  buckwheat,  rice,  linseed,  &c.  Mareska,  in  a  re- 
cent paper,  states  that  he  has  had  occasion  to  examine 


158  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

several  samples  in  which  these  frauds  had  been  prac- 
tised, and  he  describes  several  processes  by  which  their 
occurrence  may  be  ascertained. 

According  to  a  statement  made  by  a  quarter-master  in 
the  United  States  army,  one  barrel  of  flour,  or  196  lbs., 
when  in  dough,  contains  about  11  gallons,  or  90  pounds 
of  water,  2  gallons  of  yeast,  and  3  pounds  of  salt, — 
making  a  mass  of  305  pounds,  which  evaporates  in 
kneading  and  baking  about  40  pounds,  leaving  in  bread 
about  265  pounds ;  the  bread  thus  exceeded  in  weight 
the  flour  employed,  by  about  33.50  per  cent. 

Dumas  informs  us,  that  130  pounds  of  the  common 
white  bread  of  Paris  are  obtained  from  100  pounds  of 
flour.  To  this  he  adds,  that  the  flour  contains  17  per 
cent,  of  water,  the  produce  being  then  equivalent  to 
150  pounds  of  bread  from  100  pounds  of  flour.  As 
the  American  wheat  seldom  contains  more  than  14  per 
cent,  of  water,  the  statement  of  the  quarter-master  cor- 
responds very  nearly  with  that  of  the  French  chemists. 
The  increase  of  weight  in  the  bread  over  that  of  the 
flour,  viz.,  33.50  per  cent.,  ought  to  afi'ord  an  ample 
remuneration  for  its  manufacture.  But  it  is  not  unfre- 
quently  the  case,  that  larger  demands  are  made  by  those 
who  are  engaged  in  this  important  branch  of  art. 

The  deficiency  in  the  weight  of  bread,  and  the  extent 
of  the  imposition  practiced  in  the  sale  of  loaves  at  a  cer- 
tain price,  can,  in  general,  be  very  easily  ascertained. 
For  example,  the  proper  weight  of  the  shilling  loaf 
(New  York  currency)  may  be  determined  by  reducing 
the  price  of  flour  to  shillings,  and  then  dividing  196  by 


AND    millwright's    ASSISTANT.  159 

this  amount.  Thus,  the  price  of  flour  being  $7  a  bar- 
rel, (which  is  a  sufficiently  high  average  for  even  the  best 
brands  during  the  year  past,)  the  shilling  loaf  should 
weigh  three  and  a  half  pounds.     For, 

7  times  8:=:56;  196--56=:3.60. 
This  will  leave  twenty  loaves  of  the  same  weight,  or 
$2.50  as  the  profit  on  the  manufacture. 

Although  the  whiteness  of  bread  is  considered  as  a 
mark  of  its  goodness,  it  has  been  ascertained  by  Profes- 
sor Johnston,  that  fine  flour  contains  a  less  proportion 
of  nutritive  matter  than  the  whole  meal.  The  correct- 
ness of  this  view  has  been  confirmed  during  present 
investigation;  for  in  two  or  three  samples  of  wheat 
which  I  have  analyzed,  it  was  found  that  the  amount  of 
gluten  in  the  fine  flour  was  less  than  in  the  flour  passed 
through  a  coarser  seive  and  containing  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  bran. 

These  results,  according  to  Professor  Johnston,  are 
to  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  part  of 
the  grain  which  is  most  abundant  in  starch  crushes 
better  and  more  easily  under  the  millstones  than  that 
which,  being  richest  in  gluten,  is  probably  also  tougher, 
and  less  brittle.  They  are  also  consistent  with  the 
greater  nourishment  generally  supposed  to  reside  in 
household-bread,  made  from  the  flour  of  the  whole  grain. 
But  such  is  the  controlling  influence  of  custom,  that 
it  is  perhaps  in  vain  to  attempt  a  change,  even  though 
its  benefits  may  be  clearly  proved  by  the  researches  of 
science,  and  by  an  extensive  experience. 


160  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

Analyses  of  Wheat  Flour. 

Before  presenting  the  details  of  my  analyses,  it  may 
not  be  amiss  to  offer  a  few  explanations  in  regard  to  some 
researches  of  a  similar  kind,  which  have  heretofore  been 
made.  The  discrepancies  in  the  published  results  of 
various  analyses  arise  principally,  I  apprehend,  from  the 
different  processes  which  have  been  employed. 

The  table  published  in  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry 
gives  the  proportions  of  gluten  or  albumen  in  English 
Middlesex  wheat  at  19.00  per  cent.;  in  Sicilian  wheat, 
23.90  per  cent.;  in  Poland  wheat,  20.00  per  cent.;  and  in 
North  American  wheat,  22.50.  The  mode  pursued  by 
this  celebrated  chemist  has  not,  so  far  as  I  know,  been 
published,  but  the  amount  of  nutritive  principle  is 
larger  than  that  usually  obtained;  a  circumstance  which 
may,  perhaps,  be  ascribed  to  its  being  imperfectly  dried. 

In  the  table  containing  the  results  of  Yanquelin's 
analysis  of  wheat  flours,  the  proportions  of  gluten  are 
generally  much  lower  than  those  obtained  by  Davy. 
Thus,  in  common  French  flour,  the  gluten  is  10.96  per 
cent.;  flour  of  hard  Odessa  wheat,  14.53  per  cent.;  flour 
from  the  bakers  of  Paris,  10.20  per  cent. 

Boussingault,  adopting  the  plan  of  determining  the 
amount  of  azotized  principles  by  immediate  ultimate 
analysis,  has  obtained  a  larger  per  centage  of  the  nu- 
tritive principle  than  either  of  the  above-named  chem- 
ists. Thus,  he  states  that  the  hard  African  wheat  con- 
tains of  gluten  and  albumen,  26.50  per  cent.;  Sicilian 
wheat,  24.30  per  cent.;  Dantzic  wheat,  22.70  per  cent. 


AND    millwright's   ASSISTANT.  161 

He  gives  reasons,  wliicli,  to  a  certain  extent,  account  for 
the  larger  quantity  of  azotized  principles  which  he  found 
in  the  samples  of  flour,  and  adds,  ^^  that  the  varieties  of 
wheat,  the  flour  of  which  was  analyzed,  were  all  grown 
in  the  rich  soil  of  the  garden,  a  circumstance  which,  as 
Hermbstadt  has  shown,  exerts  the  most  powerful  influ- 
ence in  increasing  the  quantity  of  gluten  in  wheat/^ 

Dr.  Robert  D.  Thomson  has  also  published  the  re- 
sults of  several  analyses  of  wheat  flour.  The  proportion 
of  the  nutritive  principle  was  deduced  from  the  quantity 
of  ammonia  formed  from  the  azote  contained  in  the 
sample.  According  to  this  chemist,  Canada  flour  contains 
13.81  per  cent,  of  the  nutritive  principle,  (gluten  and 
albumen;)  Lothian  flour,  12.30  percent.;  United  States 
flour,  11.37  per  cent.,  and  another  sample  of  the  same, 
10.99  per  cent. 

It  is  not  easy  to  understand  why  Canadian  flour  should 
rank  so  much  higher  than  that  from  the  United  States. 
The  sample  named  Canadian  flour  in  the  table  may  have 
boen,  in  fact,  brought  from  this  side  of  the  line,  for  it 
i&  stated  that  our  wheat  is  carried  to  Canada,  there 
ground  into  flour,  and  taken  to  England  under  Canadian 
duty.  One  house  at  Cleveland  is  said  to  have  shipped, 
during  the  last  summer  and  fall,  36,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  which  was  ground  at  St.  Catharine's,  on  the 
Welland  Canal,  and  sent  to  London  under  contract. 

Mr.  Mitchell,  in  his  analyses  of  various  London  flours, 
obtained  the  following  proportion  of  gluten,  viz.  :  in 
fine  flour,  No.  1,  9.50  per  cent. ;  in  No.  2,  11.40  per 

14« 


162 

cent. ;  in  second  flour,  No.  1,  8.50  per  cent. ;  in  No.  2, 
7.70  per  cent. 

After  mature  consideration,  I  determined  to  adopt  the 
mode  of  analysis  which  shortly  consists  in  separating 
the  gluten  by  washing  with  cold  water,  and  then  sub- 
jecting the  remaining  constituents  of  the  flour  to  other 
operations.  I  preferred  this  process,  as  being  more 
easily  executed,  requiring  less  apparatus,  and  less  skill 
and  nicety  of  manipulation,  than  are  demanded  in  the 
ultimate  analysis.  I  have  little  doubt,  moreover,  that, 
for  the  practical  purposes  of  this  investigation,  it  is 
equally,  if  not  more  accurate;  for,  with  all  the  improve- 
ments which  have  been  made  in  the  method  of  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  organic  substances,  it 
is  not  yet  free  from  difficulties.  I  may  also  add,  that 
the  ultimate  analysis  fails  to  give  us  any  information 
concerning  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  gluten — a  point 
which  is,  perhaps,  of  as  much  consequence  in  settling 
the  real  value  of  flour,  as  the  amount  of  that  principle. 

The  difierent  steps  of  the  analyses  have,  in  all  cases, 
been  conducted  with  as  much  uniformity  as  possible ; 
one  important  object  being  to  furnish  a  table  of  results 
which  should,  at  least,  show  the  relative  value  of  the 
difierent  samples  subjected  to  trial. 

All  the  samples  from  abroad  were  received  in  tin 
boxes  or  glass  bottles,  carefully  closed  so  as  to  prevent 
the  access  of  external  air.  Thus,  whether  damaged  or 
not,  they  were  probably  in  nearly  the  same  condition, 
when  they  came  into  my  hands,  as  they  were  when 
put  up. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  163 

In  proceeding  with  the  analysis,  100  grains  of  the 
flour  were  put  into  a  small  Berlin-ware  capsule,  which 
had  been  previously  counterpoised  in  a  delicate  balance. 

The  capsule,  with  its  contents,  was  then  placed  in  a 
water-bath  drying  oven,  and  subjected  to  a  heat  of  about 
212°  Fahrenheit  for  from  three  to  six  or  seven  hours, 
or  until,  after  rapid  weighing,  there  was  found  to  be  no 
farther  diminution  of  weight.  The  proportion  of  water 
in  the  sample  was  thus  determined  by  the  weight  re- 
quired again  to  balance  the  capsule  and  its  contents. 

A  weighed  portion  of  the  flour,  usually  100  grains, 
was  next  carefully  kneaded  into  stifi"  paste  or  dough,  by 
the  cautious  addition  of  pure  water,  and  the  dough  thus 
formed  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cup  for  a  few  minutes. 
A  fine  linen  cloth  was  stretched  over  the  top  of  a  bolt- 
ing-cloth sieve,  and  this  again  placed  in  a  large  Berlin- 
ware  dish.  The  dough  was  now  washed  on  the  hand, 
over  the  sieve  and  cloth,  with  a  small  stream  of  water, 
and  gently  kneaded,  from  time  to  time,  until  all  the 
starchy  particles  and  the  soluble  matters  were  removed. 
The  tough  gluten  was  washed  until  the  water  ceased  to 
become  milky,  and,  after  being  carefully  pressed  out  by 
the  fingers,  was  subjected  to  the  heat  of  a  water-bath 
until  perfectly  dry ;  an  operation  which  sometimes  occu- 
pied 10  or  12  hours.  It  was  then  weighed  warm,  and 
the  amount  noted. 

A  sufiicient  quantity  of  water  was  now  poured  upon 
the  linen  cloth  to  carry  down  the  starch,  while  any  small 
particles  of  gluten,  washed  ofl"  during  the  operation, 
were  added  to  the  mass.     In  those  cases  where  the  flour 


164 

contained  any  considerable  proportion  of  bran^  the  latter 
substance  was  found  upon  the  linen  cloth. 

The  turbid  washings  were  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
vessel,  until  the  whole  of  the  starch  was  deposited.  The 
supernatant  liquor  was  then  removed  by  a  pipette,  the 
starch  again  washed,  and  the  wash-water  removed  as 
before.  The  starch  was  now  dried,  subjected  to  the  heat 
of  the  water-bath  to  expel  all  the  water,  and  then  quickly 
weighed.  The  clear  liquor,  removed  from  the  starch, 
was  evaporated  at  a  boiling  heat  to  near  dryness,  the 
complete  desiccation  being  effected  at  a  temperature  of 
220°  or  230°  Fahrenheit.  In  some  cases  a  few  flocks, 
probably  albumen,  were  observed  floating  in  the  liquid 
during  the  evaporation,  but  the  quantity  was  usually  so 
small,  that  I  did  not  attempt  to  separate  it.  The  re- 
siduum thus  obtained  was  principally  a  mixture  of  sweet 
and  gummy  matter,  with  a  small  proportion  of  woody 
fibre  and  saline  substances.  As  I  ascertained  that  the 
sugar  was  the  variety  called  glucose,  or  grape-sugar,  and 
the  gummy  constituent  was  supposed  to  be  dextrine,  I 
have  placed  all  the  results  of  the  evaporation  of  the 
clear  liquor  under  these  two  heads. 

I  may  remark,  that  the  gluten  obtained  by  this  pro- 
cess contains  a  small  quantity  of  an  oily  matter,  which 
I  supposed  to  be  about  equal  to  that  of  the  albumen  in 
the  clear  solution  separated  from  the  starch.  The  pro- 
portions of  gluten  given  in  the  following  analyses  will, 
therefore,  very  nearly  represent  the  amount  of  nutritive 
matters  contained  in  the  various  samples. 

In  most  cases,  I  carried  out  the  analysis  to  the  end, 


AND    millwright's   ASSISTANT.  165 

obtaining  and  weighing  the  several  substances ;  but  as 
the  principal  object  was  to  determine  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  gluten,  the  process  was  occasionally  stopped 
at  this  point.  In  a  few  other  instances,  the  proportion 
of  gluten,  glucose,  and  dextrine  were  determined  di- 
rectly, while  the  quantity  of  starch  was  estimated  by 
difference. 

For  convenience  of  reference,  the  analyses  are  ar- 
ranged under  the  head  of  the  several  States  from  whence 
the  specimens  were  obtained.  I  regret  that  the  number 
received  from  the  South  is  so  small,  as  I  was  very  anxious 
to  exhibit,  in  one  view,  the  relative  quantities  of  nutritive 
matter  in  the  northern  and  southern  flours.  Should 
the  investigation  be  continued,  this  point  will  claim  my 
earliest  attention. 

Several  varieties  of  wheat  sent  from  Amsterdam 
have  been  analyzed,  (after  being  ground  to  fine  flour,) 
principally  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  results 
with  those  obtained  from  the  samples  from  the  United 
States. 


166  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


RESULTS  OF  THE  ANALYSES, 

Beginning  with  the  States  separately^  where  the  various 
Samples  of  Wheat  were  grown  and  manufactured. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Water 12.75 

Gluten 10.90 

Starch 70.20 

Glucose,  dextrine,  &c 6.15 

100.00 

NEW  YORK. 
.The  Analysis  from  pure  Genesee  Wheat, 

Water 13.35 

Gluten 12.82 

Starch 68.00 

Glucose,  dextrine,  &c 6.50 

100.67 

OHIO. 

Wheat  Flour  from  Beaumont  <&  HollingswortK s  Mills, 

Zanesville. 

Water , 12.85 

Gluten 14.25 

Starch 67.06 

Glucose,  dextrine,  &c 5.98 

100.14 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  167 

INDIANA. 
Wheat  Flour  from  FoiTest^s  Millsj  Logansport. 

Water 712.85 

Gluten 11.90 

Starch 67.00 

Glucose,  dextrine,  &c 8.25 

100.00 

ILLINOIS. 
The  Wheat  floured  in  Oswego, 

Water 12.90 

Gluten 11.25 

Starch 66.00 

Glucose,  dextrine,  &c 8.60 

Bran 1.25 

100.00 

This  sample  is  said  to  be  of  a  dark  colour,  and  scarcely 
fit  to  pass  inspection ;  but  the  gluten  being  rich,  the 
chemist  pronounced  it,  in  proportion,  as  above  the  ave- 
rage of  western  samples. 

MICHIGAN. 
Wheat  Flour  from  Bruce  Mills. 

Water 13.20 

Gluten 11.85 

Starch 65.60 

Glucose,  dextrine,  &c 8.60 

Bran 45 

99.70 


168  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER^ 

WJieat  Flour  from  Monroe,  Michigan. 

Water 13.10 

Gluten 10.40 

Starch,  glucose,  dextrine 76.30 

Bran 20 

100.00 

[This  I  consider  about  the  average  of  wheat  grown  in 
the  State  of  Michigan,  of  all  samples,  except  Mediterra- 
nean wheat,  which  appears  to  exceed  all  others  in  supe- 
rior richness  of  glutinous  substance,  generally  weighing 
from  62  lbs.  to  67  lbs.  per  measured  bushel,  and  en- 
tirely resembling  the  sample  of  Kussian  wheat  called 
Kubanka,  and  imported  by  Russia  from  the  Mediterra- 
nean. It  grows  well  in  Michigan,  but  is  not  much  liked 
by  our  merchant  millers,  from  the  fact  of  its  possessing 
less  starch  than  other  samples  of  wheat ;  and  in  perspec- 
tive view,  the  flour  does  not  show  that  white  and  delicate 
appearance  that  Michigan  flour  is  so  noted  fox.  But  in 
the  loaf,  it  is  very  superior — the  bread  being  very  rich 
and  moist,  from  the  greater  quantity  of  gluten  and  less 
quantity  of  water  than  in  other  samples. 
Analysis  of  Mediterranean  Wheat,  grown  in  Michigan, 

Water 11.54 

Gluten 16.24 

Starch , 56.90 

Glucose,  dextrine,  &c 10.24 

Bran 5.08 

100.00 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  169 

Its  berry  is  in  colour  a  dark-reddish  cast,  and  very 
large  in  size  and  of  great  length ;  for  family  flour,  it  is 
superior  to  any  other.  It  is  also  of  a  very  hard  nature, 
and  requires  to  be  ground  very  closely  and  passed 
through  a  very  fine  bolt.  The  Author.] 

WISCONSIN. 
Flour  from  Wisconsin  Wheat,  manufacturedj  there. 

Water 13.80 

Gluten 10.85 

Starch 67.00 

Glucose  and  dextrine 8.83 

99.98 


GEORGIA. 
Wheat  from  Floyd  County,  Georgia, 

Water 11.75 

Gluten 14.36 

Starch \ 68.93 

Glucose  and  dextrine 4.96 

100.00 


[The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  this  able  and  sci- 
entific analysis  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
miller  and  all  dealers  in  breadstufis,  and  show,  at  a 
glance,  the  component  substances,  as  well  as  the  physi- 
cal nature,  of  this  great  staple  of  domestic  consumption, 
wheat  flour,  not  inappropriately  called  the  "staff  of 
life." 

15 


170  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER; 

From  the  quantity  of  water  which  we  are  shown  it 
contains,  we  must  conclude  on  the  necessity  there  is  for 
extracting  it  from  the  grain,  for  its  preservation.  The 
use  of  the  kiln  for  drying  all  kinds  of  grain  before 
ground  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended,  both  for 
the  preservation  of  the  flour  or  meal,  as  well  as  a  pre- 
ventive from  insects  called  weevil,  which  abound  in  all 
warm  climates. 

The  Author.] 


A  TABLE  RECKONING  THE  PRICE  OF  WHEAT,  FROM 
FIFTY  CENTS  TO  ONE  DOLLAR  PER  BUSHEL. 

For  the  convenience  of  millers,  we  subjoin  the  follow- 
ing tables.  The  price  will  be  found  at  the  top  of  the 
page  and  in  the  columns  headed  "  value  of  bushels''  and 
"value  of  pounds/'  and^irectly  opposite  the  number  of 
bushels  and  pounds  in  the  left-hand  column  will  be 
found  the  value,  in  dollars,  cents,  and  mills,  of  1  bushel 
or  1  pound  to  100  bushels  or  100  pounds. 


AND   MILLWRIGHT  S   ASSISTANT. 


171 


^d 

Wheat  at  50  cts. 

Wheat  at  51  cts. 

Wheat  at  52  cts. 

Wheat  at  53  cts. 

ll 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

•^a 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

i^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

1 

60 

8 

51 

9 

62 

9 

53 

9 

2 

1  00 

1  7 

1  02 

1  7 

1  04 

1  7 

1  06 

1  8 

3 

1  50 

2  6 

1  53 

2  6 

1  56 

2  6 

1  69 

2  7 

4 

2  00 

3  3 

2  04 

3  4 

2  08 

3  5 

2  12 

3  5 

6 

2  50 

4  2 

2  55 

4  3 

2  60 

4  3 

2  65 

4  4 

6 

3  00 

6  0 

3  06 

6  1 

3  12 

5  2 

3  18 

6  3 

7 

3  50 

5  8 

3  57 

6  0 

3  64 

6  1 

3  71 

6  2 

8 

4  00 

6  7 

4  08 

6  8 

4  16 

6  9 

4  24 

7  1 

9 

4  50 

7  5 

4  59 

7  7 

4  68 

7  8 

4  77 

8  0 

10 

6  00 

8  3 

6  10 

8  5 

5  20 

8  6 

5  30 

8  8 

11 

6  60 

9  2 

5  61 

9  4 

5  72 

9  6 

6  83 

9  7 

12 

6  00 

10  0 

6  12 

10  2 

6  24 

10  4 

6  36 

10  6 

13 

6  60 

10  8 

6  63 

11  1 

6  76 

11  3 

6  89 

11  6 

14 

7  00 

11  7 

7  14 

11  9 

7  28 

12  1 

7  42 

12  4 

16 

7  60 

12  6 

7  65 

12  8 

7  80 

13  0 

7  95 

13  3 

16 

8  00 

13  3 

8  16 

13  6 

8  32 

13  9 

8  48 

14  1 

17 

8  50 

14  2 

8  67 

14  6 

8  84 

14  7 

9  01 

16  0 

18 

9  00 

16  0 

9  18 

15  3 

9  36 

15  6 

9  54 

15  9 

19 

9  50 

15  8 

9  69 

16  2 

9  88 

16  5 

10  07 

16  8 

20 

10  00 

16  7 

10  20 

17  0 

10  40 

17  3 

10  60 

17  7 

21 

10  50 

17  5 

10  71 

17  9 

10  92 

18  2 

11  13 

18  6 

22 

11  00 

18  3 

11  22 

18  7 

11  44 

19  1 

11  66 

19  4 

23 

11  60 

19  2 

11  73 

19  6 

11  96 

19  9 

12  19 

20  3 

24 

12  00 

20  0 

12  24 

20  4 

12  48 

20  8 

12  72 

21  2 

25 

12  50 

20  8 

12  76 

21  3 

13  00 

21  7 

13  25 

22  1 

26 

13  00 

21  7 

13  26 

22  1 

13  52 

22  6 

13  78 

23  0 

27 

13  60 

22  5 

13  77 

23  0 

14  04 

23  4 

14  31 

23  9 

28 

14  00 

23  3 

14  28 

23  8 

14  66 

24  3 

14  84 

24  7 

29 

14  50 

24  2 

14  79 

24  7 

16  08 

25  1 

16  37 

25  6 

30 

16  00 

25  0 

16  30 

25  6 

15  60 

26  0 

16  90 

26  6 

40 

20  00 

33  3 

20  40 

34  0 

20  80 

34  7 

21  20 

36  3 

60 

26  00 

41  7 

25  50 

42  5 

26  00 

43  4 

26  60 

44  2 

100 

50  00 

83  4 

51  00 

85  0 

52  00 

86  6 

63  00 

88  4 

172 


THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


•s« 

Wheat  at  54  cts. 

Wheat  at  65  cts. 

Wheat  at  56  ets. 

Wheat  at  57  cts. 

'S'S 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

II 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

S^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

^    cts 

cts.  m. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

%    cts 

cts.  m. 

1 

54 

9 

55 

9 

56 

9 

57 

1  0 

2 

1  08 

1  8 

1  10 

1   8 

1  12 

1  9 

1  14 

1  9 

8 

1  62 

2  7 

1  65 

2  8 

1  69 

2  8 

1  71 

2  9 

4 

2  16 

3  6 

2  20 

3  7 

2  25 

3  7 

2  28 

3  8 

5 

2  70 

4  5 

2  75 

4  6 

2  81 

4  7 

2  85 

4  8 

6 

3  24 

5  4 

3  30 

5  5 

3  37 

5  6 

3  42 

5  7 

7 

3  78 

6  3 

3  85 

6  4 

3  94 

6  6 

3  99 

6  7 

8 

4  32 

7  2 

4  40 

7  3 

4  50 

7  5 

4  56 

7  6 

9 

4  86 

8  1 

4  95 

8  3 

5  06 

8  4 

5  13 

8  6 

10 

5  40 

9  0 

5  50 

9  2 

5  62 

9  4 

5  70 

9  5 

11 

5  94 

9  9 

6  05 

10  1 

6  19 

10  3 

6  27 

10  5 

12 

6  48 

10  8 

6  60 

11  0 

6  75 

11  2 

6  84 

11  4 

13 

7  02 

11  7 

7  15 

11  9 

7  31 

12  2 

7  41 

12  4 

14 

7  56 

12  6 

7  70 

12  9 

7  87 

13  1 

7  98 

13  3 

15 

8  10 

13  5 

8  25 

13  8 

8  44 

14  1 

8  55 

14  3 

16 

8  64 

14  4 

8  80 

14  7 

9  00 

15  0 

9  12 

15  2 

17 

9  18 

15  3 

9  35 

15  6 

9  56 

15  9 

9  69 

16  2 

18 

9  72 

16  2 

9  90 

16  5 

10  12 

16  9 

10  26 

17  1 

.     19 

10  26 

17  1 

10  45 

17  4 

10  69 

17  8 

10  83 

18  1 

20 

10  80 

18  0 

n  00 

18  3 

11  25 

18  7 

11  40 

19  0 

21 

11  34 

18  9 

11  55 

19  3 

11  81 

19  7 

11  97 

20  0 

22 

11  88 

19  8 

12  10 

20  2 

12  37 

20  6 

12  54 

20  9 

23 

12  42 

20  7 

12  65 

21  1 

12  94 

21  6 

13  11 

21  9 

24 

12  96 

21  6 

13  20 

22  0 

13  50 

22  5 

13  68 

22  8 

25 

13  50 

22  5 

13  75 

22  9 

14  06 

23  4 

14  25 

23  8 

26 

14  04 

23  4 

14  30 

23  8 

14  62 

24  4 

14  82 

24  7 

27 

14  58 

24  3 

14  85 

24  8 

15  19 

25  3 

15  39 

25  7 

28 

15  12 

25  2 

15  40 

25  7 

15  75 

26  2 

15  96 

26  6 

29 

15  66 

26  1 

15  95 

26  6 

16  31 

27  2 

16  53 

27  6 

30 

16  20 

27  0 

16  50 

27  5 

16  87 

28  1 

17  10 

28  5 

40 

21  60 

36  0 

22  00 

36  7 

22  50 

37  5 

22  80 

38  0 

50 

27  00 

45  0 

27  50 

45  8 

28  12 

46  9 

28  50 

47  5 

100 

54  00 

90  0 

55  00 

91  7 

56  24 

93  8 

57  00 

95  0 

AND    MILLWRIGHT  S   ASSISTANT. 


173 


,2  ad 

Wheat  at  68  cts. 

Wheat  at  59 cts. 

Wheat  at  60  cts. 

Wheat  at  61  cts. 

|l 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

.c  p, 

Value 

VaFue 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

g=^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

1 

58 

1   0 

59 

1    0 

60 

1  0 

61 

1   0 

2 

1   16 

1  9 

1  18 

2  0 

1  20 

2  0 

1  22 

2  0 

3 

1  74 

2  9 

1  77 

3  0 

1  80 

3  0 

1  83 

3  0 

4 

2  32 

3  9 

2  36 

4  0 

2  40 

40 

2  44 

4  1 

5 

2  90 

4  8 

2  95 

4  9 

3  00 

5  0 

3  05 

5  1 

6 

3  48 

5  8 

3  54 

5  9 

3  60 

6  0 

3  66 

6  1 

7 

4  06 

6  8 

4  13 

6  9 

4  20 

7  0 

4  27 

7  1 

8 

4  64 

7  7 

4  72 

7  9 

4  80 

8  0 

4  88 

8  1 

9 

5  22 

8  7 

5  31 

8  9 

6  40 

9  0 

5  49 

9  1 

10 

5  80 

9  7 

5  90 

9  9 

6  00 

10  0 

6  10 

10  1 

11 

6  38 

10  6 

6  49 

10  8 

6  60 

11  0 

6  71 

11  2 

12 

6  96 

11  6 

7  08 

11  8 

7  20 

12  0 

7  32 

12  2 

13 

7  54 

12  6 

7  67 

12  8 

7  80 

13  0 

7  93 

13  2 

14 

8  12 

13  5 

8  26 

13  8 

8  40 

14  0 

8  54 

14  2 

15 

8  70 

14  5 

8  85 

14  8 

9  00 

15  0 

9  15 

15  2 

16 

9  28 

15  5 

9  44 

15  8 

9  60 

16  0 

9  76 

16  3 

17 

9  86 

16  4 

10  03 

16  7 

10  20 

17  0 

10  37 

17  3 

18 

10  44 

17  4 

10  62 

17  7 

10  80 

18  0 

10  98 

18  3 

19 

11  02 

18  4 

11  21 

18  7 

11  40 

19  0 

11   59 

19  3 

20 

11  60 

19  3 

11  80 

19  7 

12  00 

20  0 

12  20 

20  3 

21 

12  18 

20  3 

12  39 

20  7 

12  60 

21  0 

12  81 

21  3 

22 

12  76 

21  3 

12  98 

21  6 

13  20 

22  0 

13  42 

22  4 

23 

13  34 

22  2 

13  57 

22  6 

13  80 

23  0 

14  03 

23  4 

24 

13  92 

23  2 

14  16 

23  6 

14  40 

24  0^ 

14  64 

24  4 

25 

14  50 

24  2 

14  75 

24  6 

15  00 

25  0 

15  25 

25  4 

26 

15  08 

25  1 

15  34 

25  6 

15  60 

26  0 

15  86 

26  4 

27 

15  66 

26  1 

15  93 

26  5 

16  20 

27  0 

16  47 

27  4 

28 

16  24 

27  1 

16  52 

27  5 

16  80 

28  0 

17  08 

28  5 

29 

16  82 

28  0 

17  11 

28  5 

17  40 

29  0 

17  69 

29  5 

30 

17  40 

29  0 

17  70 

29  5 

18  00 

30  0 

18  30 

30  5 

40 

23  20 

38  7 

23  60 

39  3 

24  00 

40  0 

24  40 

40  7 

50 

29  00 

48  3 

29  50 

49  2 

30  00 

50  0 

30  50 

50  8 

100 

58  00 

96  6 

59  00 

98  3 

60  00 

100  0 

61  00 

101  6 

174 


THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


"S  * 

Wheat  at  62  cts. 

Wheat  at  64  cts. 

Wheat  at  65  cts. 

Wheat  at  66  cts. 

II 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

p  g 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

g-^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

S  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts 

cts.  m. 

1 

62 

1  0 

64 

1  1 

65 

1  1 

66 

1  1 

2 

1  25 

2  1 

1  28 

2  1 

1  30 

2  2 

1  32 

2  2 

3 

1  87 

3  1 

1  92 

3  2 

1  95 

3  2 

1  98 

3  3 

4 

2  50 

4  2 

2  56 

4  2 

2  60 

4  3 

2  64 

4  4 

6 

3  12 

5  2 

3  20 

5  3 

3  25 

5  4 

3  30 

6  6 

6 

3  75 

6  2 

3  84 

6  4 

S   90 

6  5 

3  96 

6  6 

7 

4  37 

7  3 

4  48 

7  4 

4  55 

7  6 

4  62 

7  7 

8 

5  00 

8  3 

5  12 

8  6 

5  20 

8  7 

5  28 

8  8 

9 

5  62 

9  4 

5  76 

9  6 

5  85 

9  8 

6  94 

9  9 

10 

6  25 

10  4 

6  40 

10  7 

6  60 

10  8 

6  60 

11  0 

11 

6  87 

11  5 

7  04 

11  7 

7  15 

11  9 

7  26 

12  1 

12 

7  50 

12  5 

7  68 

12  8 

7  80 

13  0 

7  92 

13  2 

13 

8  12 

13  5 

8  32 

13  9 

8  45 

14  1 

8  58 

14  3 

14 

8  75 

14  6 

8  96 

14  9 

9  10 

15  2 

9  24 

15  4 

15 

9  37 

15  6 

9  60 

16  0 

9  75 

16  3 

9  90 

16  5 

16 

10  00 

16  6 

10  24 

17  0 

10  40 

17  3 

10  56 

17  6 

17 

10  62 

17  7 

10  88 

18  1 

11  05 

18  4 

11  22 

18  7 

18 

11  25 

18  7 

11  52 

19  2 

11  70 

19  5 

11  88 

19  8 

19 

11  87 

19  8 

12  16 

20  3 

12  35 

20  6 

12  54 

20  9 

20 

12  50 

20  8 

12  80 

21  3 

13  00 

21  7 

13  20 

22  0 

21 

13  12 

21  9 

13  44 

22  4 

13  65 

22  7 

13  86 

23  1 

22 

13  75 

22  9 

14  08 

23  4 

14  30 

23  9 

14  52 

24  2 

23 

14  37 

24  0 

14  72 

24  5 

14  95 

24  9 

15  18 

25  3 

24 

15  00 

25  0 

15  36 

25  6 

15  60 

26  0 

15  84 

26  4 

25 

16  62 

26  0 

16  00 

26  6 

16  25 

27  1 

16  50 

27  5 

26 

16  25 

27  1 

16  64 

27  8 

16  90 

28  2 

17  16 

28  6 

27 

16  87 

28  1 

17  28 

28  8 

17  65 

29  3 

17  82 

29  7 

28 

17  50 

29  2 

17  92 

29  9 

18  20 

30  3 

18  48 

30  8 

29 

18  12 

30  2 

18  56 

30  9 

18  85 

31  4 

19  14 

31  9 

30 

18  75 

31  2 

19  20 

32  0 

19  50 

32  6 

19  80 

33  0 

40 

25  00 

41  7 

25  60 

42  7 

26  00 

43  3 

26  40 

44  0 

60 

31  25 

52  1 

32  00 

53  3 

32  50 

54  2 

33  00 

55  0 

100 

62  50 

104  2 

64  00 

106  6 

66  00 

108  3 

66  00 

110  0 

AND    millwright's  ASSISTANT. 


175 


'i-S 

Wheat  at  67  cts. 

Wheat  at  68  cts. 

Wheat  at  69  cts. 

Wheat  at  70  cts. 

l§ 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

-^a 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

1^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

^  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

1 

67 

1  1 

68 

1  1 

69 

1  1 

70 

1  2 

2 

1  38 

2  2 

1  36 

2  3 

1  38 

2  3 

1  40 

2  3 

3 

2  00 

3  3 

2  04 

3  4 

2  06 

3  4 

2  10 

3  5 

4 

2  67 

4  5 

2  72 

4  5 

2  75 

4  6 

2  80 

4  7 

5 

3  33 

5  6 

3  40 

5  7 

3  44 

5  7 

3  50 

5  8 

6 

4  00 

6  7 

4  08 

6  8 

4  12 

6  9 

4  20 

7  0 

7 

4  67 

7  8 

4  76 

7  9 

4  81 

8  0 

4  90 

8  2 

8 

5  33 

8  9 

5  44 

9  1 

5  50 

9  2 

5  60 

9  3 

9 

6  00 

10  0 

6  12 

10  2 

6  19 

10  3 

6  30 

10  5 

10 

6  67 

11  1 

6  80 

11  3 

6  87 

11  5 

7  00 

11  7 

11 

7  33 

12  2 

7  48 

12  5 

7  56 

12  6 

7  70 

12  8 

12 

8  00 

13  3 

■  8  16 

13  6 

8  25 

13  7 

8  40 

14  0 

13 

8  67 

14  5 

8  84 

14  7 

8  94 

14  9 

9  10 

15  2 

14 

9  33 

15  5 

9  52 

15  9 

9  62 

16  0 

9  80 

16  3 

15 

10  00 

16  7 

10  20 

17  0 

10  31 

17  2 

10  50 

17  5 

16 

10  67 

17  8 

10  88 

18  1 

11  00 

18  3 

11  20 

18  7 

17 

11  33 

18  9 

11  56 

19  3 

11  69 

19  5 

11  90 

19  8 

18 

12  00 

20  0 

12  24 

20  4 

12  37 

20  6 

12  60 

21  0 

19 

12  67 

21  1 

12  92 

21  5 

13  06 

21  8 

13  30 

22  2 

20 

13  33 

22  2 

13  60 

22  7 

13  75 

22  9 

14  00 

23  3 

.  21 

14  00 

23  3 

14  28 

23  8 

14  44 

24  1 

14  70 

24  5 

22 

14  67 

24  5 

14  96 

24  9 

15  12 

25  2 

15  40 

25  7 

23 

15  33 

25  5 

15  64 

26  1 

15  81 

26  4 

16  10 

26  8 

24 

16  00 

26  7 

16  32 

27  2 

16  50 

27  5 

16  80 

28  0 

25 

16  67 

27  8 

17  00 

28  3 

17  19 

28  6 

17  50 

29  2 

26 

17  33 

28  9 

17  68 

29  5 

17  87 

29  8 

18  20 

30  3 

27 

18  00 

30  0 

18  36 

30  6 

18  56 

30  9 

18  90 

31  5 

28 

18  67 

31  1 

19  04 

31  7 

19  25 

32  1 

19  60 

32  7 

29 

19  33 

32  2 

19  72 

32  9 

19  94 

33  2 

20  30 

33  8 

30 

20  00 

33  3 

20  40 

34  0 

20  62 

34  4 

21  00 

35  0 

40 

26  67 

44  4 

27  20 

45  3 

27  50 

45  8 

28  00 

46  7 

50 

33  33 

55  6 

34  00 

56  6 

34  37 

57  3 

35  00  58  3 

100 

66  67 

111  1 

68  00 

113  3 

68  75 

114  6 

70  00  116  7 

176 


THE  AMERICAN   MIIXEE, 


m    . 

Wheat  at  71  cts. 

Wheatat72cts> 

Wheat  at  73  cts. 

Wheat  at  74  cts. 

If 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

•^1 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

i^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

$    cts. 

cts.  m. 

1 

71 

1  2 

72 

1   2 

73 

1  2 

74 

1   2 

2 

1  42 

2  4 

1  44 

2  4 

1  46 

2  4 

1  48 

2  6 

3 

2  13 

3  5 

2  16 

3  6 

2  19 

3  6 

2  22 

3  7 

4 

2  84 

4  7 

2  88 

4  8 

2  92 

4  9 

2  96 

4  9 

5 

3  55 

5  9 

3  60 

6  0 

3  65 

6  1 

3  70 

6  2 

6 

4  26 

7  1 

4  32 

7  2 

4  38 

7  3 

4  44 

7  4 

7 

4  97 

8  3 

5  04 

8  4 

5  11 

8  5 

5  18 

8  6 

8 

5  68 

9  5 

5  76 

9  6 

5  84 

9  7 

5  92 

9  9 

9 

6  39 

10  6 

6  48 

10  8 

6  57 

10  9 

6  66 

11  1 

10 

7  10 

11  8 

7  20 

12  0 

7  30 

12  2 

7  40 

12  3 

11 

7  81 

13  0 

7  92 

13  2 

8  03 

13  4 

8  14 

13  6 

12 

8  52 

14  2 

8  64 

14  4 

8  76 

14  6 

8  88 

14  8 

13 

9  23 

15  4 

9  36 

15  6 

9  49 

15  8 

9  62 

16  0 

14 

9  94 

16  6 

10  08 

16  8 

10  22 

17  0 

10  36 

17  3 

15 

10  65 

17  7 

10  80 

18  0 

10  95 

18  2 

11  10 

18  5 

16 

11  36 

18  9 

11  52 

19  2 

11  68 

19  5 

11  84 

19  7 

17 

12  07 

20  1 

12  24 

20  4 

12  41 

20  7 

12  58 

20  9 

18 

12  78 

21  3 

12  96 

31  6 

13  14 

21  9 

13  32 

22  2 

19 

13  49 

22  5 

13  68 

22  8 

13  87 

23  ll 

14  06 

23  4 

20 

14  20 

23  7 

14  40    24  0 

14  60 

24  3  i|  14  80 

24  7 

21 

14  91 

24  8 

15  12 

25  2 

15  33 

25  5j;i5  54 

25  9 

22 

15  62 

26  0 

15  84 

26  4 

16  06 

26  8|!16  28 

27  1 

23 

16  33 

27  2 

16  56 

27  6 

16  79 

28  Oil  17  02 

28  4 

24 

17  04 

28  4 

17  28 

28  8 

17  52 

29  2|il7  76 

29  6 

25 

17  75 

29  6 

18  00 

30  0 

18  25 

30  4' 18  50 

30  8 

26 

18  46 

30  8 

18  72 

31  2 

18  98 

31  6iil9  24 

32  1 

27 

19  17 

31  9 

19  44 

32  4 

19  71 

32  9    19  98 

33  3 

28 

19  88 

33  1 

20  16 

33  6 

20  44 

34  0    20  72 

34  5 

29 

20  59 

34  3 

20  88 

34  8 

21  17 

35  3i  21  46 

35  7 

30 

21  30 

35  5 

21  60 

36  0 

21  90 

36  5    22  20 

37  0 

40 

28  40 

47  3 

28  80 

48  0 

29  20 

48  8    29  60 

49  3 

50 

35  60 

59  2j 

36  00 

60  0 

36  50 

60  8  1  37  00 

61  7 

100 

71  00 

118  3, 

72  00  120  0  1 

73  00 

121  7  ii  74  00 

123  3 

AND    MILLWRIGHTS  ASSISTANT. 


177 


,2  a3 

Wheat  at  75  cts. 

Wheat  at  7  6  cts. 

Wheat  at  77  cts. 

Wheat  at  78  cts. 

11 

per  bashel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

•^a 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

;l^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

Iba. 

^    cts. 

cts.  m. 

^   cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts 

cts.  m. 

1 

75 

1  2 

76 

1  3 

77 

1  3 

78 

1  3 

2 

1  50 

2  5 

1  52 

2  5 

1  54 

2  6 

1  56 

2  6 

3 

2  25 

3  7 

2  28 

3  8 

2  31 

3  8 

2  34 

3  9 

4 

3  00 

5  0 

3  04 

5  1 

3  08 

5  1 

3  12 

5  2 

5 

3  75 

6  2 

3  80 

6  3 

3  85 

6  4 

3  90 

6  5 

6 

4  50 

7  5 

4  56 

7  6 

4  62 

7  7 

4  68 

7  8 

7 

5  25 

8  7 

5  32 

8  9 

5  39 

9  0 

5  46 

9  2 

8 

6  00 

10  0 

6  08 

10  1 

6  16 

10  3 

6  24 

10  4 

9 

6  75 

11  2 

6  84 

11  4 

6  93 

11  5 

7  02 

11  7 

10 

7  50 

12  5 

7  60 

12  7 

7  70 

12  8 

7  80 

13  0 

11 

8  25 

13  7 

8  36 

13  9 

8  47 

14  1 

8  58 

14  3 

12 

9  00 

15  0 

9  12 

15  2 

9  24 

15  4 

9  36 

15  6 

13 

9  75 

16  2 

9  88 

16  5 

10  01 

16  7 

10  14 

16  9 

14 

10  50 

17  5 

10  64 

17  7 

10  78 

17  9 

10  92 

18  2 

15 

11  25 

18  7 

11  40 

19  0 

11  55 

19  2 

11  70 

19  5 

16 

12  00 

20  0 

12  16 

20  3 

12  32 

20  5 

12  48 

20  8 

17 

12  75 

21  2 

12  92 

21  5 

13  09 

21  8 

13  26 

22  1 

18 

13  50 

22  5 

13  68 

22  8 

13  86 

23  1 

14  04 

23  4 

19 

14  25 

23  7 

14  44 

24  1 

14  63 

24  4 

14  82 

24  7 

20 

15  00 

25  0 

15  20 

25  3 

15  40 

25  7 

15  60 

26  0 

21 

15  75 

26  2 

15  96 

26  6 

16  17 

26  5 

16  38 

27  3 

22 

16  50 

27  5 

16  72 

27  9 

16  94 

28  2 

17  16 

28  6 

23 

17  25 

28  7 

17  48 

29  1 

17  71 

29  5 

17  94 

29  9 

24 

18  00 

30  0 

18  24 

30  4 

18  48 

30  8 

18  72 

31  2 

25 

18  75 

31  2 

19  00 

31  7 

19  25 

32  1 

19  50 

32  5 

26 

19  50 

32  5 

19  76 

32  9 

20  02 

33  4 

20  28 

33  8 

27 

20  25 

33  7 

20  52 

34  2 

20  79 

34  6 

21  06 

35  1 

28 

21  00 

35  0 

21  28 

35  5 

21  56 

35  9 

21  84 

36  4 

29 

21  75 

36  2 

22  04 

36  7 

22  33 

37  2 

22  62 

37  7 

30 

22  50 

37  5 

22  80 

38  0 

23  10 

38  5 

23  40 

39  0 

40 

30  00 

50  0 

30  40 

50  7 

30  80 

51  3 

31  20 

52  0 

50 

37  50 

62  5 

38  00 

63  3 

38  50 

64  21 

39  00 

65  0 

100 

75  00 

125  0 

76  00 

126  7 

77  00 

128  31 

78  00 

130  0 

178 


THE  AMERICAN   MILLEE, 


00      , 

Wheat  at  79  cts. 

Wheat  at  80  cts. 

Wheat  at  81  cts. !'  Wheat  at  82  cts. 

11 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

-§1 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

i^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

S    cts 

cts.  m. 

^    cts. 

cts.  m. 

$   cts. 

cts.  m. 

$>    cts 

cts.  m. 

1 

79 

1  3 

80 

1   3 

81 

1   4 

82 

1  4 

2 

1  58 

2  6 

1  60 

2  7 

1  62 

2  7 

1  6^ 

2  7 

3 

2  37 

3  9 

2  40 

4  0 

2  43 

4  1 

2  4C 

4  1 

4 

3  16 

5  3 

3  20 

5  3 

3  25 

5  4 

3  2g 

5  5 

6 

3  95 

6  6 

4  00 

6  7 

4  06 

6  8 

4  10 

6  8 

6 

4  74 

.7  9 

4  80 

8  0 

4  87 

8  1 

4  92 

8  2 

7 

6  53 

9  2 

5  60 

9  3 

5  69 

9  5 

5  74 

9  6 

8 

6  32 

10  5 

6  40 

10  7 

6  50 

10  8 

6  56 

10  9 

9 

7  11 

11  8 

7  20 

12  0 

7  31 

12  2 

7  38 

12  3 

10 

7  90 

13  2 

8  00 

13  3 

8  12 

13  5 

8  20 

13  7 

11 

8  69 

14  5 

8  80 

14  7 

8  94 

14  9 

9  02 

15  0 

12 

9  48 

15  8 

9  60 

16  0 

9  75 

16  2 

9  84 

16  4 

13 

10  27 

17  1 

10  40 

17  3 

10  56 

17  6 

10  66 

17  8 

14 

11  06 

18  4 

11  20 

18  7 

11  37 

18  9 

11  48 

19  1 

15 

11  85 

19  8 

12  00 

20  0 

12  19 

20  3 

12  30 

20  5 

16 

12  64 

21  1 

12  80 

21  3 

13  00 

21  7 

13  12 

21  9 

17 

13  43 

22  4 

13  60 

22  7 

13  81 

23  0 

13  94 

23  2 

18 

14  22 

23  7 

14  40 

24  0 

14  62 

24  3 

14  76 

24  6 

19 

15  01 

25  0 

15  20 

25  3 

15  44 

25  7 

15  58 

26  0 

20 

15  80 

26  3 

16  00 

26  7 

16  25 

27  1 

16  40 

27  3 

21 

10  59 

27  6 

16  80 

28  0 

17  06 

28  4 

17  22 

28  7 

22 

17  38 

29  0 

17  60 

29  3 

17  87 

29  8 

18  04 

30  1 

23 

18  17 

30  3 

18  40 

30  7 

18  69 

31  1 

18  86 

31  4 

24 

18  96 

31  6 

19  20 

32  0 

19  50 

32  6 

19  68 

32  8 

25 

19  75 

32  9 

20  00 

33  3 

20  31 

33  9| 

20  50 

34  2 

26 

20  54 

34  2 

20  80 

34  7 

21  12 

35  2 

21  32 

35  5 

27 

21  33 

35  6 

21  60 

36  0 

21  94 

36  6 

22  14 

36  9 

28 

22  12 

36  9 

22  40 

37  3 

22  75 

37  9 

22  96 

38  3 

29 

22  91 

38  2 

23  20 

38  7 

23  56 

39  3 

23  78 

39  6 

30 

23  70 

39  5 

24  00 

40  0 

24  37 

40  6 

24  60 

41  0 

40 

31  60 

52  7 

32  00 

53  3 

32  50 

54  2 

32  80 

54  7 

50 

39  50 

65  8 

40  00 

66  6 

40  62 

67  7 

41  00 

68  3 

100 

79  00 

131  7 

80  00 

133  3] 

81  25 

135  4 

82  00 

136  6 

AND   MILLWRIGHT  S  ASSISTANT. 


179 


%^ 

Wheat  at  83  cts. 

Wheat  at  84  cts. 

Wheat  at  85  cts. 

Wheat  at  86  cts. 

11 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

-§§, 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

^^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

1 

83 

1  4 

84 

1  4 

85 

1  4 

86 

1  4 

2 

1  67 

2  8 

1  68 

2  8 

1  70 

2  8 

1  72 

2  9 

3 

2  50 

4  2 

2  52 

4  2 

2  55 

4  3 

2  58 

4  3 

4 

3  33 

5  6 

3  36 

5  6 

3  40 

5  7 

3  44 

5  7 

5 

4  17 

6  9 

4  20 

7  0 

4  25 

7  1 

4  30 

7  2 

6 

6  00 

8  3 

5  04 

8  4 

5  10 

8  5 

5  16 

8  6 

7 

5  83 

9  7 

5  88 

9  8 

5  95 

9  9 

6  02 

10  0 

8 

6  67 

11  1 

6  72 

11  2 

6  80 

11  3 

6  88 

11  5 

9 

7  50 

12  5 

7  56 

12  6 

7  65 

12  7 

7  74 

12  9 

10 

8  33 

13  9 

8  40 

14  0 

8  50 

14  2 

8  60 

14  3 

11 

9  17 

15  3 

9  24 

15  4 

9  35 

15  6 

9  46 

15  8 

12 

10  00 

16  7 

10  08 

16  8 

10  20 

17  0 

10  32 

17  2 

13 

10  83 

18  1 

10  92 

18  2 

11  05 

18  4 

11  18 

18  6 

14 

11  67 

19  4 

11  76 

19  6 

11  90 

19  8 

12  04 

20  1 

16 

12  50 

20  8 

12  60 

21  0 

12  75 

21  2 

12  90 

21  5 

16 

13  33 

22  2 

13  44 

22  4 

13  60 

22  7 

13  76 

22  9 

17 

14  17 

23  6 

14  28 

23  8 

14  45 

24  1 

14  62 

24  4 

18 

15  00 

25  0 

15  12 

25  2 

15  30 

25  5 

15  48 

25  8 

19 

15  83 

26  4 

15  96 

26  6 

16  15 

26  9 

16  34 

27  2 

20 

16  67 

27  8 

16  80 

28  0 

17  00 

28  3 

17  20 

28  7 

21 

17  50 

29  2 

17  64 

29  4 

17  85 

29  7 

18  06 

30  1 

22 

18  33 

30  6 

18  48 

30  8 

18  70 

31  2 

18  92 

31  5 

23 

19  17 

31  9 

19  32 

32  2 

19  55 

32  6 

19  78 

33  0 

24 

20  00 

33  3 

20  16 

33  6 

20  40 

34  0 

20  64 

34  4 

25 

20  83 

34  7 

21  00 

35  0 

21  25 

35  4 

21  50 

35  8 

26 

21  67 

36  1 

21  84 

36  4 

22  10 

36  8 

22  36 

37  3 

27 

22  50 

37  5 

22  68 

37  8 

22  95 

38  3 

23  22 

38  7 

28 

23  33 

38  9 

23  52 

39  2 

23  80 

39  7 

24  08 

40  1 

29 

24  17 

40  3 

24  36 

40  6 

24  65 

41  1 

24  94 

41  6 

30 

25  00 

41  7 

25  20 

42  0 

25  50 

42  5 

25  80 

43  0 

40 

33  33 

55  6 

33  60 

56  0 

34  00 

56  7 

34  40 

57  3 

50 

41  67 

69  4 

42  00 

70  0 

42  50 

70  8 

43  00 

71  7 

100 

83  33 

138  9 

84  00 

140  0 

85  00 

141  7 

86  00 

143  3 

180 


THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 


•S-s 

Wheat  at  87i  c. 

Wheat  at  89  cts. 

Wheat  at  90  cts. 

Wheat  at  91  cts. 

II 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

•^1 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

s^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

S  cts 

cts.  m. 

$  cts 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

^  cts 

cts.  m. 

1 

87 

1  4 

89 

1  5 

90 

1  5 

91 

1  5 

2 

1  75 

2  9 

1  78 

3  0 

1  80 

3  0 

1  82 

3  1 

3 

2  62 

4  4 

2  67 

4  4 

2  70 

4  5 

2  73 

4  5 

4 

3  50 

5  8 

3  56 

5  9 

3  60 

6  0 

3  64 

6  1 

5 

4  37 

7  3 

4  45 

7  4 

4  50 

7  5 

4  55 

7  6 

6 

5  25 

8  7 

6  34 

8  9 

5  40 

9  0 

5  46 

9  1 

7 

6  12 

10  2 

6  23 

10  4 

6  80 

10  5 

6  37 

10  6 

8 

7  00 

11  7 

7  12 

11  9 

7  20 

12  0 

7  28 

12  1 

9 

7  87 

13  1 

8  01 

13  8 

8  10 

13  5 

8  19 

18  6 

10 

8  75 

14  6 

8  90 

14  8 

9  00 

15  0 

9  10 

15  2 

11 

9  62 

16  0 

9  79 

16  3 

9  90 

16  5 

10  01 

16  7 

12 

10  50 

16  5 

10  68 

17  8 

10  80 

18  0 

10  92 

18  2 

13 

11  87 

18  9 

11  57 

19  8 

11  70 

19  5 

11  83 

19  7 

14 

12  25 

20  4 

12  46 

20  8 

12  60 

21  0 

12  74 

21  2 

15 

13  12 

21  9 

18  85 

22  2 

13  50 

22  5 

13  65 

22  7 

16 

14  00 

23  3 

14  24 

28  7 

14  40 

24  0 

14  56 

24  3 

17 

14  87 

24  8 

15  18 

25  2 

15  80 

25  5 

15  47 

25  8 

18 

15  75 

26  2 

16  02 

26  7 

16  20 

27  0 

16  88 

27  3 

19 

16  62 

27  7 

16  91 

28  2 

17  10 

28  5 

17  29 

28  8 

20 

17  50 

29  2 

17  80 

29  7 

18  00 

30  0 

18  20 

30  8 

21 

18  37 

30  6 

18  69 

31  1 

18  90 

31  5 

19  11 

81  8 

22 

19  25 

82  1 

19  58 

82  5 

19  80 

33  0 

20  02 

33  4 

23 

20  12 

33  5 

20  47 

34  1 

20  70 

84  5 

20  98 

34  9 

24 

21  00 

35  0 

21  36 

35  6 

21  60 

36  0 

21  84 

36  4 

25 

21  87 

86  4 

22  25 

37  1 

22  50 

37  5 

22  75 

37  9 

26 

22  75 

87  9 

23  14 

38  6 

23  40 

89  0 

23  66 

89  4 

27 

23  62 

39  4 

24  03 

40  0 

24  30 

40  5 

24  57 

40  9 

28 

24  50 

40  8 

24  92 

41  5 

25  20 

42  0 

25  48 

42  5 

29 

25  37 

42  3 

25  81 

43  0 

26  10 

43  5 

26  39 

44  0 

80 

26  25 

43  7 

26  70 

44  5 

27  00 

45  0 

27  80 

45  5 

40 

35  00 

58  3 

35  60 

59  0 

36  00 

60  0 

36  40 

60  7 

50 

43  75 

72  9 

44  50 

74  2 

45  00 

75  0 

45  50 

75  8 

100 

87  50 

145  8 

89  00  148  3  II 

90  00 

150  0 

91  00 

151  7 

AND   MILLWRIGHT  S  ASSISTANT. 


181 


-3-3 

Wheat  at  92  cts. 

Wheat  at  93  cts. 

Wheat  at  94  cts. 

Wheat  at  95  cts. 

II 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

6^ 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

g^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

^  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

1 

92 

1  5 

93 

1  5 

94 

1  6 

95 

.1  6 

2 

1  84 

3  1 

1  86 

3  1 

1  87 

3  1 

1  90 

3  2 

3 

2  76 

4  6 

2  79 

4  6 

2  81 

4  7 

2  85 

4  7 

4 

3  68 

6  1 

3  72 

6  2 

3  75 

6  2 

3  80 

6  3 

6 

4  60 

7  7 

4  65 

7  8 

4  69 

7  8 

4  75 

7  9 

6 

5  52 

9  2 

5  58 

9  3 

5  62 

9  4 

5  70 

9  5 

7 

6  44 

10  7 

6  51 

10  8 

6  56 

10  9 

6  65 

11  1 

8 

7  36 

12  3 

7  44 

12  4 

7  50 

12  5 

7  60 

12  7 

9 

8  28 

13  8 

8  37 

13  9 

8  44 

14  1 

8  55 

14  3 

10 

9  20 

15  3 

9  30 

15  5 

9  37 

15  6 

9  50 

15  8 

11 

10  12 

16  9 

10  23 

17  1 

10  31 

17  2 

10  45 

17  4 

12 

11  04 

18  4 

11  16 

18  6 

11  25 

18  7 

11  40 

19  0 

13 

11  96 

19  9 

12  09 

20  1 

12  19 

20  3 

12  35 

20  6 

14 

12  88 

21  5 

13  02 

21  7 

13  12 

21  9 

13  30 

22  2 

15 

13  80 

23  0 

13  95 

23  3 

14  06 

23  4 

14  25 

23  7 

16 

14  72 

24  5 

14  88 

24  8 

15  00 

25  0 

15  20 

25  3 

17 

15  64 

26  1 

15  81 

26  3 

15  94 

26  6 

16  15 

26  9 

18 

16  56 

27  6 

16  74 

27  9 

16  87 

28  1 

17  10 

28  5 

19 

17  48 

29  1 

17  67 

29  4 

17  81 

29  7 

18  05 

30  1 

20 

18  40 

30  7 

18  60 

31  0 

18  75 

31  2 

19  00 

31  7 

21 

19  32 

32  2 

19  53 

32  6 

19  69 

32  8 

19  95 

33  2 

22 

20  24 

33  7 

20  46 

34  1 

20  62 

34  4 

20  90 

34  8 

23 

21  16 

35  3 

21  39 

35  6 

21  56 

35  9 

21  85 

36  4 

24 

22  08 

36  8 

22  32 

37  2 

22  50 

37  5 

22  80 

38  0 

25 

23  00 

38  3 

23  25 

38  8 

23  44 

39  1 

23  75 

39  6 

26 

23  92 

39  9 

24  18 

40  3 

24  37 

40  6 

24  70 

41  2 

27 

24  84 

41  4 

25  11 

41  8 

25  31 

42  2 

25  65 

42  7 

28 

25  76 

42  9 

26  04 

43  4 

26  25 

43  7 

26  60 

44  3 

29 

26  68 

44  5 

26  97 

44  9 

27  19 

45  3 

27  55 

45  9 

30 

27  60 

46  0 

27  90 

46  5 

28  12 

46  9 

28  50 

47  5 

40 

36  80 

61  3 

37  20 

62  0 

37  50 

62  5 

38  00 

63  3 

50 

46  00 

76  7 

46  50 

77  5 

46  87 

78  1 

47  50 

79  2 

100 

92  00 

153  3 

93  00 

155  0 

93  75 

156  2 

95  00 

158  3 

16 


182 


THE  AMERICAN  MILLEE. 


«^  |Wheatat96cts. 

Wheat  at  97  cts. 

Wheat  at  98  cts. 

!  Wheat  at  99  cts. 

11 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

per  bushel. 

^1 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

Value 

^^ 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

bush. 

lbs. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

^  cts. 

cts.  m. 

$  cts. 

cts.  m. 

^  cts. 

cts.  m. 

1 

96 

16 

97 

1  6 

98 

1  6 

99 

1  6 

2 

1  92 

3  2 

1  94 

3  2 

1  96 

3  3 

1  98 

3  3 

3 

2  88 

4  8 

2  91 

4  8 

2  94 

4  9 

2  97 

4  9 

4 

3  84 

6  4 

3  88 

6  5 

3  92 

6  5 

3  96 

6  6 

5 

4  80 

8  0 

4  85 

8  1 

4  90 

8  2 

4  95 

8  2 

6 

5  76 

9  6 

6  82 

9  7 

5  88 

9  8 

5  94 

9  9 

7 

6  72 

11  2 

6  79 

11  3 

6  86 

11  4 

6  93 

11  5 

8 

7  68 

12  8 

7  76 

12  9 

7  84 

13  1 

7  92 

13  2 

9 

8  64 

14  4 

8  73 

14  5 

8  82 

14  7 

8  91 

14  8 

10 

9  60 

16  0 

9  70 

16  2 

9  80 

16  3 

9  90 

16  5 

11 

10  56 

17  6 

10  67 

17  8 

10  78 

17  9 

10  89 

18  1 

12 

11  52 

19  2 

11  64 

19  4 

11  76 

19  6 

11  88 

19  8 

13 

12  48 

20  8 

12  61 

21  0 

12  74 

21  2 

12  87 

21  4 

14 

13  44 

22  4 

13  58 

22  6 

13  72 

22  9 

13  86 

23  1 

15 

14  40 

24  0 

14  55 

24  2 

14  70 

24  5 

14  85 

24  7 

16 

15  36 

25  6 

15  52 

25  9 

15  68 

26  1 

15  84 

26  4 

17 

16  32 

27  2 

16  49 

27  5 

16  66 

27  8 

16  83 

23  0 

18 

17  28 

28  8 

17  46 

29  1 

17  64 

29  4 

17  82 

29  7 

19 

18  24 

30  4 

18  43 

30  7 

18  62 

31  0 

18  81 

31  3 

20 

19  20 

32  0 

19  40 

32  3 

19  60 

32  7 

19  80 

33  0 

21 

20  16 

33  6 

20  37 

33  9 

20  58 

34  3 

20  79 

34  6 

22 

21  12 

35  2 

21  34 

35  6 

21  56 

35  9 

21  78 

36  3 

23 

22  08 

36  8 

22  31 

37  2 

22  54 

37  6! 

22  77 

37  9 

24 

23  04 

38  4 

23  28 

38  8 

23  52 

39  2 

23  76 

39  6 

25 

24  00 

40  0 

24  25 

40  4 

24  50 

40  8i 

24  75 

41  3 

26 

24  96 

41  6 

25  22 

42  0 

25  48 

42  5 

25  74 

42  9 

27 

25  92 

43  2 

26  19 

43  6 

26  46 

44  1 

26  73 

44  5 

28 

26  88 

44  8 

27  16 

45  3 

27  44 

45  7 

27  72 

46  2 

29 

27  84 

46  4 

28  13 

46  9 

28  42 

47  4 

28  71 

47  8 

30 

28  80 

48  0 

29  10 

48  5 

29  40 

49  0 

29  70 

49  5 

40 

38  40 

64  0 

38  80 

64  7 

39  20 

65  3 

39  60 

66  0 

50 

48  00 

80  0 

48  50 

80  8 

49  00 

81  7 

49  50 

82  5 

100 

96  00 

160  0 

97  00 

161  7 

98  00 

163  3 

99  00 

165  0 

AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  183 


STEAM  AS  APPLIED  FOR  PROPELLING  MILLS. 

Steam,  as  a  power  for  milling  purposes,  in  locations 
where  fuel  can  be  easily  obtained,  is  quite  as  good  as 
water,  when  constructed  and  arranged  properly.  The 
old  method  of  building  steam-mills  with  single  engines 
is  always  attended  with  a  good  deal  of  difficulty,  re- 
quiring very  nice  calculation  in  proportioning  the  motion 
of  the  machinery,  so  as  to  do  away  with  back-lashing, 
which  is  impossible,  unless  the  velocity  of  the  balance- 
wheel  exceed  that  of  the  stone ;  which  should  be  borne 
in  mind  by  all  millwrights  who  undertake  to  build  mills 
with  single  engines.  But  modern  improvement  in  the 
science  of  practical  mechanics  has  improved  the  steam 
mill,  by  the  application  of  two  engines  instead  of  one. 
The  engines  are  attached  to  the  main  shaft,  working  at 
right  angles,  which  gives  a  very  even,  steady  power,  and 
dispenses  with  the  use  of  fly-wheels  entirely. 

The  following  sized  engines  may  be  used  in  mills  to 
drive  two  run  of  stones,  viz. : 

Size  of  cylinders,  10  inches  bore, — length  of  stroke, 
2  feet;  to  be  supplied  with  steam  from  two  boilers, 
double  flues,  40  inches  in  diameter,  30  feet  long. 

Boilers  and  engines  of  that  size  will  drive  two  run  of 
stones,  with  all  necessary  machinery  for  flouring  and 
custom  work.  And  a  mill  of  that  size,  when  properly 
constructed,  with  five  cords  of  wood  per  twenty-four 
hours,  will  put  up  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
thirty  barrels  of  flour. 


184  THE  AMERICAN    MILLER, 

ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  SAW-MILL,  WITH  A 
TABLE  FOR  MEASURING  SAW-LOGS. 

The  construction  of  the  saw-mill  is  something  that 
requires  improvement,  even  in  this  day  of  mechanical 
progress.  The  old  method  of  building  saw-mills,  is  to 
attach  the  water-wheel  and  saw  to  the  same  shaft.  That 
we  consider  wrong,  for  the  following  reasons:  The  power 
of  the  water  is  so  great,  it  requires  every  part  of  all  the 
connecting  machinery  to  be  bound  very  secure,  which 
causes  a  stiffness  which  very  materially  reduces  the  ac- 
tual power,  when  used  in  connection  with  a  crank.  As 
the  power  of  the  water  is  the  same,  both  off  and  on  the 
centre,  producing  an  irregularity  of  motion,  the  momen- 
tum of  which  racks  the  frame  of  the  mill,  and  occasions 
a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  time  in  extra  repairs.  To 
make  this  subject  more  plain,  the  weight  of  water,  saw- 
sash,  pitman,  and  crank  cannot  be  equalized,  as  the 
length  of  the  crank  being  the  distance  from  the  centre, 
produces  that  irregularity  of  motion,  which  pertains  to 
all  crank  motions.  Saw-mills  of  this  description  are 
generally  driven  by  horizontal  water-wheels,  and  are  sim- 
ple in  their  construction,  but  are  less  powerful  than 
those  mills  geared  by  perpendicular  water-wheels  as 
follows : 

The  first  great  advantage  in  gearing  saw-mills  with 
perpendicular  water-wheels,  is,  you  use  the  water  on  a 
wheel  working  on  the  principle  of  the  lever  of  the  second 
kind,  (see,  "Mechanics,"  page  16,)  the  power  being 


glU^^  AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  185 

8  to  1;  and  tlie  saw  being  driven  by  a  belt,  takes  away 
all  that  strain  which  destroys  and  racks  the  frame,  as  all 
single  geared  mills.  Also,  the  gig-wheel  is  done  away, 
as,  by  a  gauge  on  the  main  gate,  the  carriage  may  be 
worked  with  ease,  and  a  good  deal  of  power  saved  thereby. 

For  a  water  power  of  seven  feet  head,  the  following 
described  rules  may  be  used,  and  a  good  strong  mill 
obtained : — Size  of  the  frame,  27  by  40 — size  of  water- 
wheel,  5  feet  in  diameter,  driving  a  horizontal  shaft, 
with  bevel  gearing  2  inches,  i  pitch,  driver  64  cogs, 
leader  32 — size  of  driving-drum  on  said  shaft,  8  feet  in 
diameter,  which  drives  the  crank  shaft  by  a  pully  2  feet 
in  diameter, — this  pully  should  be  made  about  2  feet 
wide,  to  allow  room  for  the  belt  which  drives  the  carriage 
by  a  drum  of  5  feet  in  diameter.  The  carriage  is 
worked  to  the  saw  by  an  eccentric  rod  attached  from  the 
crank  shaft  which  runs  up  to  the  feed  hand,  and  joins 
by  an  elbow.  A  fly-wheel  six  feet  in  diameter  is  re- 
quired, and  bored  for  the  crank  at  any  required  length, 
from  12  to  30  inches. 

This  is  the  best  possible  mode  of  constructing  the 
saw-mill,  and,  where  a  muley  saw  is  used,  is  one  of  the 
best  kind  of  mills.  The  size  of  the  belting  should  be, 
when  made  of  leather,  12  inches  wide,  of  good  band 
leather  doubled,  sewed  with  horse-hide  dressed  purpose- 
ly, stitched  three  times.  This  belt,  if  kept  dry,  will  last 
for  many  years. 

The  belting  should  be  made  of  leather,  12  or  14 
inches  wide,  and  for  the  information  of  those  concerned 
in  mills,  and  requiring  the  use  of  bands,  I  should  re- 


186  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

commend  them  to  William  Kumbel,  the  manufacturer 
and  patentee  of  KumbeFs  patent  machine-stretched 
leather  banding,  who  manufactures  the  same  at  No. 
33  Ferry  street,  New  York.  He  stretches  them  very 
thoroughly  by  machinery,  and  rivets  them  together, 
and  makes  them  run  perfectly  straight ;  and  also  war- 
rants them  to  give  perfect  satisfaction  to  the  purchaser. 
He  may  at  all  times  be  addressed  by  mail,  and  will 
send  prices  of  any  or  all  the  different  sizes  which  may 
be  wanted,  and  can  be  forwarded  by  express.  He  is  a 
man  in  whom  full  confidence  can  be  placed,  as  he  war- 
rants, and  will  take  back  any  work  that  does  not  give 
entire  satisfaction.  All  millers,  as  well  as  others  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing,  can  attest  to  the  importance 
of  having  bands  properly  made ;  and  I  have  myself  re- 
cently visited  some  of  the  largest  establishments  in 
New  York,  and,  among  others,  the  extensive,  and,  I 
might  say,  model  flouring-mill,  of  the  Messrs.  Hecker 
&  Brothers,  where  I  saw  some  3000  feet  of  this  belting 
in  operation.  For  driving  both  the  stone  and  elevators, 
its  performance  was  most  perfect.  I  should  have  no- 
ticed that  the  manufacturer  sizes  and  joints  by  cement, 
before  riveting. 


AND   MILLWRIGHT'S  ASSISTANT. 


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AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  189 


HARRISON'S  PATENT  MILL. 

This  engraving  gives  a  correct  view  of  a  mill  patented 
by  E.  Harrison,  of  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  and  made 
to  suit  all  orders,  for  sizes  of  stone  from  18  to  30  inches 
in  diameter.  The  frame,  hoppers,  and  curbs  are  of  cast 
iron,  and  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  being  taken 
apart  for  dressing  the  stone,  with  the  greatest  facility. 
They  can  be  sent  to  order,  packed  in  a  strong  case,  the 
weight  hieing  much  less  than  stone  the  ordinary  size; 
and  will  grind  from  5  bushels  to  10,  per  hour,  with  great 
ease.  For  the  use  of  all  those  millers  using  Mr.  D.  P. 
BonnelFs  celebrated  process  of  flouring,  those  mills  of 
Mr.  Harrison^s  are  peculiarly  adapted,  being  what  Mr. 
Bonnell  calls  his  auxiliary  mill. 

I  have  examined  this  patent,  at  the  warehouse  of 


190  THE  AMERICAN   MLLER, 

H.  E.  Warren,  No.  44  Cortland  street,  New  York, 
where  they  are  kept  for  sale ;  and  all  information  re- 
specting them  will  be  furnished  by  applying  to  this  ad- 
dress. They  are  also  well  calculated  for  custom  grind- 
ing, being  much  cheaper  for  grist-mills  than  large 
stone  on  light  streams.  Mr.  Warren  sells  two  kinds 
of  these  patent  mills;  the  other  being  conical  in 
shape.  These  mills  are  constructed  so  that  a  current 
of  air  is  continually  passing  though  the  stone  while  run- 
ning— a  matter  that  adds  very  much  to  their  importance. 
The  price  of  the  small  size  is  $100;  and  the  large,  of 
30  inch  stone,  $200. 


FRENCH  BURR  MILL-STONE  MANUFAG- 
TORIES. 


LAFAYETTE  BURR  MILL  MANUFACTORY, 

No.  240  Washington  street,  New  York; 

I  HAVE  personally  examined  the  mill -stones  made  by 
this  establishment,  and  found  them  very  much  to  my 
liking.  They  are  well  made,  from  choice  selected 
blocks,  and  are  well  worthy  the  patronage  of  all  mil- 
lers. The  bolting  cloths  kept  by  this  establishment, 
are  of  the  best  Grerman  brands,  being  the  old  anchor 
stamp,  which  is  in  all  cases  preferable  to  the  new  stock 
of  cloths  for  flouring  mills.  This  establishment  does 
not  work  up  any  of  the  burr  stone,  called  new  stock, 
unless  specially  ordered  by  millers  ;  a  fact  highly  credit- 


AND    millwright's   ASSISTANT.  191 

able  to  them  as  manufacturers  of  mill-stone.  I  never 
did,  nor  can  I  recommend  this  kind  of  stone  to  any 
miller,  it  being  much  inferior  to  the  old  stock.  It  is  a 
matter  of  the  greatest  importance  that  millers  should 
know  where  these  different  articles  can  be  obtained  of 
the  best  qualities. 


THE   TROY   FRENCH   BURR   MILL-STONE    MANUFAC- 
TORY. 

No.  382  River  street,  Troy,  N.  Y. 
Ethan  A.  Crandall,  Proprietor. 

The  central  position  of  this  manufactory  gives  mil- 
lers in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canadas  an 
opportunity  of  dealing  on  the  most  favourable  terms, 
for  mill-stones  and  bolting  cloths ;  it  being  one  of  the 
oldest  mill-stone  establishments  in  the  State,  and  exten- 
sively engaged  in  the  trade;  importing  all  his  own 
stock  from  France,  which  gives  millers  a  choice  of  select- 


192  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

ing  mill-stones,  not  to  be  surpassed  in  the  Union.  This 
establishment  is  daily  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
mill-stones  from  stock  of  both  the  old  and  new  quar- 
rieSy  of  French  burr,  with  improved  cast-iron  balancing 
hoxesj  &c.,  in  runners,  so  that  millers  can  be  easily  suited 
with  any  description  of  mill-stones  required,  at  un- 
usually low  prices.  I  have  examined  his  stock  of  mill- 
stones on  hand,  and  think  they  cannot  be  excelled  for 
quality  and  workmanship;  the  seams  or  joints  of  the 
stone  showing  a  great  deal  of  mechanical  skill,  in  their 
being  close,  even,  and  well  fitted.  His  stock  of  Dutch 
old  and  new  anchor  bolting  cloths  consists  of  every 
description  of  best  quality  usually  wanted  for  both  flour- 
ing and  grist-mills.  He  promptly  attends  to  all  orders 
in  his  line,  by  mail  or  otherwise ;  and  sends  bolting  cloth, 
by  express,  to  any  part  of  the  United  States  or  Canadas, 
accompanied  with  a  warranty  of  quality,  and  instruc- 
tions as  to  manner  of  covering  reels,  when  required. 


UTICA  FRENCH  BURR  MILL-STONE  MANUFACTORY. 

Hart  &  Munson,  successors  to  M.  Hart  and  Son,  in 
the  above  establishment,  are  now  prepared  to  furnish 
French  burr  mill-stones  of  the  best  quality  and  greatly 
improved  workmanship  and  finish;  together  with  the 
best  quality  bolting  cloths,  screen  wire,  hoisting  screws, 
lighter  screws,  dansells,  and  mill  picks. 

Mr.  Munson,  who  is  a  practical  miller  and  mill- 
wright, has  recently  invented  and  patented  a  machine. 


muxson's  patent  machine  for  testing  the  accuracy  of  the 
balance  of  millstones. 

Plaie  5.-p.  192 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  193 

on  whicli  the  mill-stone,  after  it  is  blocked  up,  is  sus- 
pended upon  its  centre,  where  it  is  balanced  in  the 
course  of  filling  up  and  finishing,  instead  of  filling  up 
the  same  without  the  means  of  testing  the  accuracy  of 
its  balance,  leaving  that  to  be  done  by  the  millwright, 
(as  is  usually  the  case,)  in  4ianging  the  stone  for  actual 
use  in  the  mill. 

In  order  that  the  great  superiority  of  mill-stones 
finished  in  this  way  over  all  others,  may  be  seen  at  once, 
a  brief  description  of  the  machine  and  manner  of  finish- 
ing, is  herewith  given. 

An  important  part  of  the  machine  is  a  heavy  circular 
face  plate,  which  is  hung  and  balanced  on  a  pivot  or 
spindle.  This  plate  has  a  flange  near  the  outer  edge  on 
the  under  side,  which  rests  on  four  friction  rollers,  so 
that  when  put  in  motion,  it  runs  perfectly  smooth  and 
true.  Around  the  opening  or  eye  in  the  centre  of  the 
plate,  there  is  raised  a  flange  which  receives  a  hollow 
cone  for  forming  the  eye  of  the  stone.  This  cone  stands 
perfectly  true  with  the  plate,  which  plate  is  raised  or 
lowered  with  a  lighter  screw.  The  cut  is  a  representa- 
tion of  the  machine,  with  a  mill-stone  upon  it,  in  a 
finished  state. 

The  manner  of  finishing  a  stone  is  by  placing  it  upon 
the  plate  and  centre  it.  The  skirt  is  then  coated  with 
plaster  and  turned  off  perfectly  true.  The  band  is  then 
put  on  hot.  This  band  is  wide,  (with  iron  tubes  fitted 
in  for  the  pin  holes,)  and  extends  above  the  edge  of  the 
stone  in  its  unfinished  state,  leaving  a  vacancy  between 
the  eye  and  the  band,  which  is  to  be  filled  up  in  the 

17 


194  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

finishing.  It  is  in  this  filling  up  and  finishing  of  the 
stone  that  the  balancing  of  it  is  performed.  The  means 
being  here  afi'orded^  as  described^  of  raising  the  stone 
free  from  the  friction  rollers,  and  holding  it  suspended  on 
the  spindle  or  cock  head,  and  in  that  condition  observing 
its  balance  when  at  rest,  or  by  application  of  motive 
power,  communicating  to  the  stone  a  swift  motion,  and 
in  that  condition,  by  observing  its  balance,  it  can  very 
accurately  be  ascertained  which  side  of  the  stone  pre- 
ponderates, and  where  to  apply  the  heaviest  filling. 

This  test  is  strictly  observed  until  the  necessary  thick- 
ness is  obtained.  When  the  filling  is  completed,  a  coat 
of  plaster  is  put  on  and  the  top  is  nicely  turned  ofi",  and 
the  stone  is  complete.  During  the  whole  process,  the 
means  are  afforded  of  testing  its  balance  both  at  rest 
and  in  motion,  so  that  when  the  process  of  construction 
is  complete,  and  the  mill-stone  finished,  it  is  not  only 
constructed  favourably  to  the  perfection  of  the  stone, 
but  the  stone  is  also  thoroughly  balanced. 

Their  bed  stones  are  also  finished  on  the  machine, 
consequently  are  of  equal  thickness,  which  saves  the 
necessity  of  scribing  down  or  wedging  up. 


IMPROVED  PATENT  BALANCE. 

The  mill-stone,  as  finished  upon  the  above  described 
machine,  is  accurately  balanced;  but  as  the  materials 
used  in  forming  the  stone  are  put  together  in  a  moist 
state,  and  the  moisture  not  being  equally  distributed 
throughout  all  parts  of  the  stone,  the  subsequent  season- 


rv/.H.CR££NAJ7rCA 

PATENT    BALANCE. 


Plate  6.— p.  194. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  195 

ing  and  drying  of  the  stone  may  possibly,  in  some  slight 
degree,  destroy  that  balance.  The  nature  of  the  im- 
proved patent  balance  is  to  provide  a  ready  and  conve- 
nient mode  of  re-adjusting  the  balance  of  the  stone 
whenever  it  shall  become  deranged  from  this  or  any 
other  cause.  To  do  this,  after  the  stone  is  blocked  up 
and  banded,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  four  cast-iron  boxes 
are  placed  between  the  band  and  the  eye  of  the  stone, 
on  each  of  its  four  sides.  These  boxes  extend  from  the 
band  to  the  eye  of  the  stone.  In  each  box  is  a  weight 
and  a  screw  passing  through  it.  The  end  of  the  screw 
presenting  itself  at  the  key  hole  in  the  band,  is  squared 
and  a  key  is  fitted  to  it,  so  that  by  the  use  of  this  key, 
turning  the  screw  to  the  right  or  left,  the  weight,  which 
elides  freely  within  the  box,  is  moved  nearer  to  the 
centre  of  the  stone  or  farther  from  it,  at  pleasure,  and 
in  this  way  increasing  or  diminishing  the  preponder- 
ance of  the  stone  at  this  point.  When  one  weight  is 
pressed  nearer  to  the  centre,  the  opposite  one  may  be 
drawn  out ;  thus  producing  a  two-fold  effect  in  the  re- 
lative wdght  of  the  two  opposite  sides  of  the  stone, 
and  as  the  inequality  can  rarely  be  otherwise  than  tri- 
fling after  the  stone  has  been  accurately  balanced  upon 
the  machine,  a  small  weight  of  four  or  five  pounds  will 
be  sufficient.  The  boxes  with  their  weights  and  screws 
properly  adjusted,  the  filling  of  the  stone  is  then  put  on 
covering  these  boxes,  and  the  stone  then  balanced, 
turned  off,  and  completed  as  described  above.  The 
means  being  thus  provided  of  correcting  any  inaccuracy 
in  its  balance  which  may  subsequently  accrue  from  dry- 


196 

ing,  or  from  any  other  cause.  The  improved  patent 
balance  will  be  put  into  stones  only  when  ordered^  and 
on  which  an  extra  charge  will  be  made. 

Having  visited  this  extensive  manufactory,  I  feel 
satisfied  in  saying  that  I  there  experienced  great  plea- 
sure, as  well  as  received  practical  information,  in  the 
mechanical  construction  of  the  French  burr  mill-stone, 
which  is  entirely  new.  By  reference  to  the  engravings, 
the  miller  discovers  new  principles,  which  are  adopted  for 
the  purpose  of  making  a  mill -stone  work  perfect.  This 
is  an  entirely  original  invention  of  one  of  this  firm ;  and 
I  think  I  can  safely  attest  that  no  other  mill-stone  esta- 
blishment in  the  United  States  turns  out  mill-stones 
of  a  finer  finish  and  make  than  these.  Having  visited 
several  of  the  largest  establishments  in  the  city  of  New 
York  and  elsewhere,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  millers 
all  the  information  pertaining  to  the  business,  in  this 
edition  of  my  work,  I  now  present  to  them  this  esta- 
blishment, as  a  model  French  burr  and  mill  furnishing 
concern,  highly  worthy  of  the  patronage  of  all  engaged 
in  our  business. 


ROCHESTER  FRENCH  BURR  MILL-STONE  ESTA- 
BLISHMENT. 

John  F.  Bush,  Proprietor. 

Having  visited  Rochester,  New  York,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  examining  the  latest  improvements  in  mill  ma- 
chinery, I  found  this  establishment  well  supplied  with 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  197 

all  kinds  of  materials,  such  as  mill-stones  of  all  sizes, 
together  with  bolting  cloths  of  all  numbers,  screen 
wires  of  various  numbers,  smut  machines,  proof  staffs, 
bran  dusters,  and  every  other  kind  of  miller's  merchan- 
dise, of  good  quality.  I  was  much  pleased  in  being  in- 
formed of  the  manner  of  preparing  that  useful  machine 
for  the  miller,  the  proof  staff.  It  is  made  and  proved 
on  the  most  scientific  principle,  being  faced  perfectly 
true  previous  to  casing  and  sending  them  away.  This 
is  the  only  firm  of  our  acquaintance  where  the  proof 
staff  is  properly  made. 


REMARKS  ON  A  NEW  DESCRIPTION  OF  BOLTING 
MATERIAL  FOR  GRIST  MILLS. 

This  is  a  late  invention  of  using  wire  for  bolting 
cloths  for  mills,  and  one  that  gives  millers  general 
satisfaction,  where  custom  or  grist  grinding  is  the  princi- 
pal use  of  the  same.  For  the  latter  kind  of  mills,  wire 
is  preferable  to  cloth,  as  there  is  considerable  saving  in  the 
difference  of  the  cost  of  the  bolts.  Where  wire  is  used, 
the  reels  need  not  be  so  long  by  one-third,  and  for  bolt- 
ing meal  made  from  damp  wheat,  it  is  far  preferable 
to  cloth.  Wire  is  now  manufactured  to  suit  all  num- 
bers and  sizes,  ranging  from  No.  2  to  No.  60.  Iron 
wire  cloth,  and  brass,  from  No.  2  to  No.  70.  No.  60 
iron  wire  is  fine  enough  for  superfine  flour,  and  30  for 
corn  meal.  All  descriptions  of  wire  can  be  obtained  at 
the  manufactory  of  Sterling  Smith,  No.  29  Fulton  street; 

17* 


198  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

New  York,  where  all  orders  can  be  forwarded  by  express, 
and  a  superior  article  of  cloth,  of  either  kind  of  metal, 
sent.  The  prices  vary  from  12  J  cents  per  square  foot, 
for  the  coarsest  numbers  iron,  to  45  cents,  the  finest. 
Brass,  from  30  cents  to  80,  for  No.  70,  the  finest. 


BROWN'S  WHEAT  SCALE,  WITH  HOPPER. 

The  same  as  those  used  by  the  Western  Mills  for  weighing 
Grain. 

In  compiling  this  edition  of  my  work,  I  became  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity  of  pointing  to  the  subject  of 
honest  and  accurate  means  of  weighing  both  wheat  and 
flour.  As  millers  frequently  have  to  sufi'er  no  small 
share  of  imputation  in  consequence  of  being  imposed 
upon  by  venders  of  fraudulent  scales,  I  wish  to  call 
their  attention  to  the  fact  that  they  should  be  very  care- 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  19^ 

ful  in  ascertaining  that  the  scales  they  wish  to  use  are 
made  properly;  which  may  be  done  by  examining 
whether  the  bearing  points  of  the  scale  are  made  of 
cast  steel,  as  they  should  be,  instead  of  being  cast  iron, 
roughly  fitted,  in  a  cheap  style,  as  some  of  the  scales  of 
this  description  now  offered  for  sale  are.  I  have  taken 
a  good  deal  of  pains  to  personally  examine  various 
scales  made  by  different  manufacturers,  and  have  found 
none  that  suited  my  conceptions  of  what  constitutes  a 
good  scale,  as  that  at  the  manufactory  of  J.  L.  Brown, 
No.  234  Water  street,  New  York,  as  regards  their 
mathematical  construction,  convenience  in  weighing,  and 
neatness  in  appearance.  I  found  them  made  of  the  best 
cast  steel  for  bearings,  and  carefully  adjusted  to  the 
standard  weight  of  the  United  States ;  and  they  are  used 
in  all  the  government  departments. 


BROWN'S  PATENT  SMUT  MACHINE. 

This  machine  was  invented  by  Mr.  Brown,  a  practi- 
cal miller,  of  extensive  knowledge  in  milling  business 
generally.  He  asserts  the  machine  to  clean  from  10 
to  100  bushels  per  hour,  by  different  applications  of 
speed  or  motion.  In  its  mechanical  construction,  it 
differs  from  all  other  smut  machines  of  my  knowledge. 
I  made  an  examination  of  the  working  of  it  at  the 
Kenwood  flouring  mill,  where  I  found  it  doing  a  first-rate 
business,  with  a  motion  of  400  revolutions  per  minute, 


200 

cleaning  for  four  run  of  stones,  the  size  being  30 
inches  in  diameter,  and  12  inches  deep.  Mr.  Brown 
is  employed  at  this  mill,  as  head  miller,  where  he  can 
be  addressed  by  all  those  in  want  of  his  improvement :  it 
is-  in  the  county  of  Albany,  New  York,  where  all  in- 
formation relative  to  the  use  of  the  machine  should  be 


BRAN  DUSTERS  AND  SEPARATORS  COMBINED. 

The  undersigned,  being  apractica^l  miller,  and  for  three 
years  past  engaged  in  putting  into  mills  bran  dusters,  is 
enabled  from  experience  to  say  that  no  flouring  mill 
should  be  without  this  valuable  machine. 

The  saving  by  running  the  bran,  shorts,  and  ship- 
stuffs  through  the  duster,  after  the  bolts  usually  in 
mills  have  taken  out  all  the  flour  they  are  capable  of,  is, 
in  the  best  arranged  mills,  from  one  to  two  barrels  out 
of  the  offal  from  every  100  barrels — and  in  most  mills 
is  from  two  to  five  barrels.  The  enormous  loss  millers 
sustain  who  do  not  dust  their  offal,  amounts,  in  this 
State,  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars.  In  Oswego 
alone,  where  some  500,000  barrels  of  flour  are  turned 
out  yearly,  more  than  ten  thousand  barrels  of  flour  go 
off  in  the  offal,  without  increasing  the  offal,  and  is,  in 
fact,  throwing  away  fifty  thousand  dollars.  This  bold 
assertion  the  undersigned  can  demonstrate  to  the  satis- 
faction of  any  miller  who  will  submit  the  cleanest  of 


AND  millwright's   ASSISTANT.  201 

his  bran,  shorts,  and  shipstuffs,  to  actual  trial.  Dust- 
ing the  offal  and  returning  the  flour  taken  out  to  the 
hopper-boy,  does  not  speck  or  injure  the  flour  in  the 
least — this  is  well  known  to  all  millers  who  have  intro- 
duced the  dusters. 

Machines,  capable  of  dusting  the  offal  from  any 
quantity,  up  to  500  barrels  per  day,  are  made  in  a  first 
rate  manner — not  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  easily 
repaired — either  to  separate  the  bran,  shorts,  and  ship- 
stuffs,  or  not,  at  L.  A.  Spalding's  machine  shop  and 
foundry,  in  Lockport,  New  York,  at  the  following 
prices : — 

Horizontal  machines,  with  or  without  separators, 
boxed  ready  to  run,  about  200  revolutions  per  minute, 
requiring  but  little  power — 

No.  1,  $100,  suitable  for  a  mill  turning  out  100  barrels  per  day. 
No.  2,     150,        «  "  "      200       "  « 

No.  3,     200,        "  "  «      500       "  « 

Every  flouring  mill  in  Lockport  has  this  machine  in 
use,  and  certificates,  verifying  what  is  said  herein,  could 
be  obtained,  if  necessary,  from  the  most  respectable  and 
experienced  millers  throughout  Western  New  York. 

Persons  wishing  machines  may  address  L.  A.  Spald- 
ing, Lockport,  Niagara  county.  New  York,  (post-paid,)  or 
the  subscriber,  who  will,  if  required,  attend  personally 
in  setting  them  in  operation. 

F.  A.  Spalding,  Lockport,  New  York. 

N.  B. — Directions  for  setting  up  will  be  attached .  to 
each  machine. 


202  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

BONNELL'S  IMPROVED  PROCESS  OF  FLOURING. 
Patented  August  14,  1849. 

Whatever  adds  to  or  improves  the  quality  of  any 
thing  which  is  useful  to  man,  is  valuable ;  and  what- 
ever claims  to  do  so,  is  worthy  of  attention  and  exami- 
nation, particularly  when  the  proposed  improvement  is 
directed  to  the  main  article  of  the  world's  product, 
breadstuffs. 

To  the  people  of  the  United  States,  who  have  annu- 
ally about  8,000,000  barrels  of  surplus  flour,  which 
seeks  the  market  of  the  world,  and  which  must  come 
in  competition  with  the  produce  of  the  great  wheat- 
growing  countries  of  Russia  and  Germany,  any  im- 
provement in  machinery  or  in  the  process  of  produc- 
tion, by  which  American  flour  can  be  increased  in  quan- 
tity or  improved  in  quality,  without  adding  to  the  labour 
or  expense  of  production,  must  be  of  immense  benefit. 
The  cost  of  labour,  in  the  wheat-growing  -countries  of 
Europe,  (aside  from  that  performed  by  Russian  serfs,) 
is  from  11  to  15  cents  per  day,  without  board ;  and, 
from  the  government  reports  of  that  country,  it  will  be 
seen  that  Russia  alone,  "  after  a  good  harvest,  is  in  con- 
dition to  export  about  30,000,000  of  chetwerts  of  grain,'' 
equal  to  about  180,000,000  of  bushels  of  grain;  and 
supposing  the  cost  of  transportation  equal,  as  the  Ameri- 
can producer  pays  some  seven  or  eight  times  as  much 
for  labour,  it  is  evident  he  must  abandon  the  foreign 
market,  unless  he  can,  by  the  richness  of  his  soil,  his 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  203 

superior  husbandry,  and  his  mechanical  skill,  combined, 
produce  as  cheaply  as  his  competitors.  The  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  flour  have,  for  the  last  15 
or  20  years,  been  so  great,  that  many  persons  engaged 
in  the  business  suppose  that  further  improvements  can- 
not be  made.  It  is  well  known,  that,  but  a  few  years 
ago,  it  required,  with  the  utmost  economy,  5  good 
bushels  of  wheat  to  make  a  barrel  of  superfine  flour, 
and  now  it  is  produced,  of  equally  good,  or  better 
quality,  out  of  4  bushels  and  15  to  25  pounds;  but 
whatever  may  be  their  opinions,  and  whatever  may  be 
the  quantity  now  used,  it  is  no  longer  a  conjecture,  but 
an  established  fact,  that  there  is  a  barrel  of  excellent 
superfine  flour  in  210  pounds  of  good,  dry  wheat, 
weighing  60  pounds  to  the  bushel:  t.  e.  3 J  bushels. 
There  is,  then,  a  loss  somewhere,  of  45  to  55  pounds 
on  every  barrel  of  superfine  flour ;  and  this  loss  is  mainly 
from  the  best  and  most  nutritious  portion  of  the  grain, 
the  gluten.  This  fact  is  established  by  the  following 
experiments,  extracted  from  the  report  of  Dr.  Beck  to 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  (See  Patent  Office  Re- 
port for  1848.) 


204  THE   AMERICAN   MILLER, 

ANALYSIS  OF  WHEAT  FLOUR. 

New  Jersey  Fhur. 

Example  1. — Sample  of  wheat  flour  purchased  at 
New  Brunswick  : 

Water  12.75 

Gluten    10.90 

Starch    70.20 

Glucose,  •  Dextrine,  &c 6.15 


100.00 


JS'ew  York  Flour. 

Example  4. — Wheat  flour,  branded  "Excelsior," 
manufactured  expressly  for  Messrs.  Lay  &  Craft,  Albany, 
New  York,  from  extra  pure  Genesee  wheat,  Rochester, 
New  York. 

Water  12.40 

Gluten    11.46 

Starch 70.20 

Glucose,  Dextrine,  &c 5.20 


99.26 
These  two  examples  are  about  the  medium.  There 
were  23  analyses  made  by  Dr.  Beck,  from  samples  fur- 
nished by  the  difi*erent  States,  from  which  the  average 
yield  of  gluten  was  11.18  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
flour. 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  205 

The  proportion  of  gluten  in  wlieat  is  generally  about 
double  that  contained  in  these  samples  oi  flour.  Accord- 
ing to  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry^  English  Middlesex 
wheat  contained  19.00  per  cent. ;  Sicilian  wheat,  23.90 ; 
Poland,  20.00,  and  North  American,  22.60  per  cent.  The 
other  half,  therefore,  of  this  most  precious  property  of  the 
grain  goes  into  the  bran  or  feeds,  and  is  comparatively 
lost.  On  this  point.  Dr.  Beck  says:  "Although  the 
whiteness  of  the  bread  is  considered  as  a  mark  of  its 
goodness,  it  has  been  ascertained  by  Professor  Johnston 
that  fine  flour  contains  a  less  proportion  of  nutritive 
matter  than  the  whole  meal.  The  correctness  of  this 
view  has  been  confirmed  during  the  present  investiga- 
tion ;  for  in  two  or  three  samples  of  wheat  which  I  have 
analyzed,  it  was  found  that  the  amount  of  gluten  in 
the  fine  flour  was  less  than  in  the  flour  passed  through 
a  coarse  sieve  and  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  bran. 
These  results,  according  to  Professor  Johnston,  are  to 
be  accounted  for  in  the  supposition  that  the  part  of  the 
grain  which  is  most  abundant  in  starch  crushes  better 
and  more  easily  under  the  mill-stones  than  that  which, 
being  richer  in  gluten,  is  probably  also  tougher  and 
less  brittle.  They  are  also  consistent  with  the  greater 
nourishment  generally  supposed  to  reside  in  household 
bread,  made  from  the  flour  of  the  whole  grain.'' 

Millers,  being  aware  that  they  did  not  save  all  the 
flour  which  the  grain  contained,  have  laboured  under  a 
great  many  difficulties  in  attempting  an  impossibility, 
viz.  to  reduce  to  the  same  degree  of  fineness  the  dif- 
ferent constituent  parts  of  the  grain  by  one  grinding. 


206  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

If  they  grind  high  and  free,  much,  and  the  best  portion 
of  the  flour,  will  be  lost.  Their  flour  will  contain  but 
little  else  than  the  starchy  property.  If  they  grind 
close  and  fine,  they  glaze  their  mill-stones,  and  the  heat 
produced  by  the  friction  spoils  the  flour.  The  starchy 
portion  of  the  grain  is  ground  to  a  paste,  filling  the 
meshes  of  the  bolts,  and  retarding  its  passage  through 
them.  This  shows  the  necessity  of  a  double  grinding 
process,  and,  in  fact,  all  millers  have,  in  some  manner, 
acknowledged  it,  by  taking  up  the  middlings,  or  other 
portions  of  the  ground  stufis,  and  regrinding  them. 

I  have  invented  and  recently  patented  an  improved 
process  of  grinding,  which  obviates  these  difficulties. 
It  consists  in  separating  the  starch  from  the  glutinous 
substances  contained  in  the  grain,  and  submitting  the 
latter  to  a  second  active  grinding  or  scouring  process. 
This  is  effected  by  placing  a  set  or  run  of  auxiliary  mill- 
stones, (under  a  very  rapid  motion,  from  300  to  500 
revolutions  per  minute,)  so  as  to  intercept  the  whole 
body  of  the  offal,  on  its  passage  from  the  first  or  super- 
fine bolts  to  the  return  or  duster  bolts.  The  auxiliary 
mill  may  be  adapted  in  size  to  the  work  to  be  done ;  a 
stone  36  inches  in  diameter  being  sufficient  for  a  common 
four-run  mill.  It  should  be  driven  with  a  spur  wheel 
or  gearing  of  some  kind,  as  a  belt  is  liable  to  slip  and 
lose  motion.  The  eye  of  the  stone  should  be  made 
very  conical,  and  the  irons  put  in  so  as  to  leave  as  much 
room  in  the  eye  as  possible — the  whole  of  which  should 
be  covered  with  smooth  sheet  iron  or  tin.  The  stones 
should  be  strongly  banded,  hung,  and  balanced  very 


AND  millwright's  assistant.  207 

nicely,  dressed  true  and  smooth,  with  a  pretty  large 
proportion  of  deep  furrows  about  the  eye  or  centre. 
The  feeding  is  supplied  and  made  very  uniform  and  per- 
fect, by  substituting  a  large  funnel  for  the  common  "hop- 
per, shoe,  and  damsel.^'  Around  the  tube  of  the  funnel  is 
cut  a  screw,  which  passes  through  a  nut  set  immediately 
over  the  runner's  eye.  This  tube  reaches  down  in  the 
eye  of  the  runner  until  it  comes  nearly  upon  the  top 
of  the  bale,  which  should  be  formed  so  as  to  fit,  or 
nearly  so,  the  opening  of  the  tube ;  then,  by  turning  the 
funnel,  the  screw  widens  or  contracts  the  opening  at 
the  top  of  the  bale,  admitting  more  or  less  feed,  as  de- 
sired. 

In  using  this  improvement,  the  first  grinding  should 
be  done  with  reference  to  the  starch  entirely,  always 
being  careful  to  reduce  no  part  of  it  so  fine  as  to  de- 
stroy its  granular  qualities.  This  done,  the  bolting  is 
free,  and  the  starch  is  bolted  out  in  passing  through  the 
first  or  superfine  bolts.  The  remainder  of  the  stufi's  is 
sent  directly  to  the  auxiliary  mill,  where  it  is  ground  to 
any  degree  of  fineness  the  miller  may  desire.  It  is 
then  passed  through  the  lower  merchant  or  duster  bolts, 
and  such  portion  of  it  sent  back  to  the  same  as  may  be 
necessary,  until  all  the  flour  is  brought  out  clear  from 
'^specula,''  when  it  is  continually  sent  to  the  cooler  or 
first  bolts,  to  be  uniformly  incorporated  with  the  super- 
fine flour. 

In  this  manner,  the  miller  may  put  the  whole  con- 
stituent of  the  wheat,  except  the  bran,  into  the  super- 
fine barrel;  or  as  much  of  it  as,  by  any  possibility,  is 


208  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

susceptible  of  being  made  into  flour.  He  may  make 
his  flour  a  superior  article,  in  point  of  colour  and  tex- 
ture, or  he  may  make  the  best  "  Graham^^  imaginable, 
by  one  straight,  continuous  operation.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  advantages  and  economies  which  the 
improvement  combines : 

1.  As  the  whole  body  of  the  grain  is  reduced  to  the 
same  fineness,  it  facilitates  the  bolting  and  simplifies 
the  bolting  machinery;  three  bolts,  properly  adjusted 
and  adapted  to  the  process  being  sufficient  for  a  four- 
run  mill. 

2.  It  saves  the  time,  trouble,  and  expense  of  grinding 
over  middlings,  and  makes  the  proceeds  of  the  mid- 
dlings into  superfine  flour,  and  thus  avoids  the  loss 
heretofore  sustained  in  the  sale  of  "  fine  flour." 

3.  It  catches  and  reduces  to  flour  all  the  partially 
ground  or  whole  grain,  which,  by  stopping  or  starting 
the  mill,  or  from  any  other  cause,  escapes  the  first  grind- 
ing, and  which,  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  grinding,  is 
lost  in  the  feeds. 

4.  It  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  grinding  of  the 
wet  or  damp  wheat,  so  much  of  which  comes  to  our 
markets  in  unfavourable  seasons.  The  first  grinding 
warms  the  product,  and,  on  being  passed  up  the  eleva- 
tors, through  the  cooler  and  first  bolts,  the  ofikl  is  com- 
paratively kiln-dried,  when  it  is  subjected  to  the  rapid 
motion  of  the  auxiliary  mill,  and,  on  being  bolted,  is 
readily  divested  of  almost  every  remaining  particle  of 
flour.  It  also  exhausts  the  moisture  in  wheat  compara- 
tively dry,  and,  at  the  same  time,  adds  more  gluten,  both 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  209 

of  wKich  have  a  direct  tendency  in  preserving  the  flour 
from  souring  in  warm  weather  and  hot  climates. 

5.  As  the  flour  is  drier,  richer,  and  of  better  quality, 
it  will  absorb  more  liquid  in  bread-making,  and  of  course 
make  more  bread,  and  that  of  more  nutritious  and 
wholesome  quality,  than  ordinary  superfine  flour.  This 
the  bakers  in  our  Eastern  markets,  where  this  flour  has 
been  sold,  have  already  ascertained. 

6.  It  saves  enough  from  the  bran,  shorts,  shipstufi's, 
and  middlings,  besides  the  great  saving  in  bolting  ar- 
rangements, regrinding  middlings,  &c.,  to  enable  the 
miller  to  make  his  barrel  of  excellent  superfine  flour  out 
of  15  to  25  pounds  less  wheat,  on  the  average,  than  by 
any  mode  heretofore  practised. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  objected  that  "  there  is  nothing 
new  in  grinding  over  the  ofl'al,  or  bran,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, that  it  has  long  been  practised.^'  This,  of  course, 
I  would  not  deny,  as  I  do  not  claim  to  be  the  discoverer 
or  inventor  of  any  new  'principle,  I  only  claim  to  have 
adapted  the  grinding  process  to  the  practical  and  con- 
tinuous operation  of  scouring  or  cleaning  the  offal  with 
an  auxiliary  millj  adapted  to  that  purpose,  and  running 
very  rapidly,  and,  by  a  simple  construction  and  arrange- 
ment, to  have  made  the  feeding  of  the  offal  uniform  and 
perfect,  and  that  by  these  means  all  the  difficulties  here- 
tofore encountered  in  attempting  to  grind  offal  are  en- 
tirely overcome.  Heretofore,  in  attempting  to  grind 
offal,  the  main  difficulty  has  been  in  the  feeding  and 
motion.  If  the  stones  were  run  at  a  high  speed,  the 
feeding  could  not  be  regularly  supplied ;  if  run  slowly, 


210  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

there  being  so  large  a  proportion  of  gluten  in  the  offal, 
the  stones  would  soon  become  glazed.  But  in  my  plan, 
the  atones  may  be  run  at  any  speed,  and  the  feeding  of 
bran  alone  will  be  uniform  and  equal.  It  may  also  be 
objected  that  "the  proposed  process  of  regrinding  the 
offal  will  so  speck  and  reduce  the  standard  of  the  flour, 
that  it  will  not  pass  inspection/'  It  would  answer  this 
objection  to  say  that  there  are  now  no  inspection  laws  in 
the  principal  markets  for  Western  flour,  and  that  the 
time  is  rapidly  approaching  when  the  mere  wlnteness  of 
flour  must  be  considered  of  secondary  importance,  and 
that  it  will  be  valuable  and  esteemed  in  proportion  to 
the  nutriment  it  contains.  But  I  by  no  means  admit 
that  the  colour  of  the  flour  is  necessarily  changed  by 
my  process ;  on  the  contrary,  I  assert  that  it  will  main- 
tain its  colour  and  texture  so  as  to  warrant  inspection, 
and  for  these  reasons  : 

1.  When  the  whole  meal  is  sent  from  the  first  stones 
to  the  cooler,  the  bran  is  not  cut  up  so  fine  as  when  at- 
tempting to  get  all  the  flour  from  the  wheat  by  one 
grinding  :  this  diminishes  the  chances  of  specking  the 
flour. 

2d.  The  bolts  are  fed  much  fuller  than  before,  as  the 
whole  body  of  the  flour  is  much  more  uniform,  which 
has  a  tendency  to  keep  the  lighter  particles,  or  "  bran 
speckula,''  upon  the  top,  until  carried  off  by  the  rotary 
motion  of  the  bolts,  with  the  feeds ;  and, 

3d.  The  "  offal,''  after  being  reground,  is  not  "  re- 
turned" to  the  "hopperboy,"  or  first  bolts,  but  sent  to 
the  return  or  duster  boltS;  and  such  portion  and  quality 


AND  millwright's  ASSISTANT.  211 

of  the  flour  bolted  out,  and  sent  to  the  cooler,  as  the 
miller's  judgment  may  dictate,  and  such  as  will  not 
lower  the  grade  of  superfine  flour;  the  brown  "speckula" 
of  the  lower  bolts  always  being  returned  to  the  same 
bolts,  until  the  flour  rendered  is  sufficiently  clear  to 
warrant  sending  it  to  the  "  cooler,''  or  first  bolts,  to  be 
incorporated  with  the  superfine  flour,  without  danger  of 
specking  or  injuring  its  colour.  This  can  easily  be 
done,  and  scour  the  offal  as  fine  as  you  wish,  as  the 
same  comparative  difference  is  always  maintained  be- 
tween the  bran  and  flour  :  the  bran  always  being  coarser 
and  lighter  than  the  flour,  there  is  no  trouble  in  separa- 
ting the  latter  from  the  former,,  by  proper  care  in  ar- 
ranging and  managing  the  bolting.  But  it  is  quite 
unnecessary  to  speculate  or  theorize  upon  this  sub- 
ject, as  practical  tests,  made  under  very  unfavourable 
circumstances  for  the  improvement,  have  fully  and 
fairly  settled  the  whole  question.  The  fact  is,  the  mil- 
ler's skill  and  judgment  must  always  determine  the 
quality  of  his  flour;  and  with  this  improvement  he  may 
use  6  bushels  of  wheat  for  a  barrel  of  superfine  flour, 
or  he  may  make  it  from  3  30-60,  or  3  40-60,  or  4  bush- 
els, as  the  condition  of  the  wheat  and  the  circumstances 
may  warrant. 

This  "  process"  may  be  adapted  to  any  ordinary  cus- 
tom mill  in  the  same  manner  as  specified  for  flouring, 
and  with  an  expense  of  from  100  to  150  dollars,  which 
would  enable  it  to  do  a  respectable  flouring  business, 
besides  saving  to  the  farmer  from  3  to  5  pounds  of 
flour,  of  an  improved  quality,  on  every  bushel  of  wheat 


212  THE   AMERICAN    MILLER, 

ground.  A  stone  from  20  to  24  inches  would  be  suf- 
ficient for  the  purpose,  which  might  be  driven  with  a 
belt  where  it  could  not  conveniently  be  attached  to 
gearing.  The  whole  of  the  bran  and  all  that  is  usually 
taken  off  for  middlings  and  other  stuffs  should  be  ground 
through  the  small  stones  immediately  as  it  is  bolted ; 
after  which,  it  should  be  thrown  into  a  common  bolt, 
and  as  much  of  the  flour  sent  continuously  to  the  main 
custom  bolt,  as  the  miller  desires,  and  the  residue  to  the 
''  hran  hag.^*  The  expenses  would  be  nominal,  as  com- 
pared with  the  advantages  and  savings,  which  calculated 
at  only  3  pounds  to  the  bushel,  would  amount  to  150 
barrels  of  flour  upon  every  10,000  bushels  of  wheat 
ground,  which,  at  $4  per  barrel,  would  amount  to  the 
snug  little  sum  of  $600  saved  to  the  farming  commu- 
nity ;  and  the  mill  having  such  an  improvement  would 
command  an  amount  of  business  that  would  abundantly 
compensate  it  for  the  trifling  expense.  Addison  J. 
Comstock,  of  Adrian,  (a  gentleman  who  has  been 
steadily  engaged  in  milling  during  the  last  15  or  20 
years,)  is  now  making  preparation  to  adapt  this  improve- 
ment to  "  custom  grinding,^'  after  thoroughly  testing  it 
in  his  flouring  mill. 

The  right  of  use  for  custom  mills  will  be  sold  ex- 
tremely low,  and  the  savings  made  simply  in  "  grinding 
out  the  tolls*'  for  retail  would  be  a  great  inducement 
for  millers  to  engage  in  it,  as,  in  grinding  out  the  tolls 
from  every  20,000  bushels  of  wheat,  they  would  cer- 
tainly save  30  barrels  of  flour,  besides  giving  to  the 
community,  for  which  the  20,000  bushels  were  ground, 


AND    millwright's   ASSISTANT.  213 

800  barrels  of  good  flour  more  than  they  now  obtain 
from  the  same  wheat. 

I  am  now  prepared  to  sell  rights  to  the  above  improve- 
ment, for  the  use  of  single  mills,  for  towns,  counties, 
or  States,  having  yet  the  exclusive  rights  to  the  follow- 
ing States  and  Territories,  viz. :  Ohio,  Virginia,  Michi- 
gan, Indiana,  Illinois,  South  Caroliua,  Missouri,  Georgia, 
New  Jersey,  Mississippi,  Florida,  Arkansas,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  Oregon,  and  California. 
The  remainder  of  the  States  are  duly  assigned  to  Mr. 
C.  Spafibrd,  of  Tecumseh,  who  is  also  ready  to  put  the 
same  upon  sale.  Extra  inducements  will  be  offered  to 
those  wishing  to  purchase  the  right  for  a  State  or  Ter- 
ritory ;  and  any  one  who  will  first  adopt  and  bring  the 
improvement  before  the  public  in  any  one  of  the  above 
named  States,  (where  not  already  introduced,)  may  dic- 
tate his  own  terms.  The  mill  must  be  first  class,  and 
the  proprietor  bound  to  properly  adapt  his  bolting  in 
every  particular  to  it.  The  expense  of  adopting  it, 
aside  from  the  right  of  use,  will  vary,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, from  $150  to  $250,  after  which  it  will  re- 
quire no  words  to  prove  its  durability  and  economy.  It 
is  certainly  no  objection  to  it  to  say  that  it  is  very  sim- 
ple, and  does  not  develope  any  unknown  or  very  extra- 
ordinary principles ;  on  the  contrary,  these  should  re- 
commend it  to  all  intelligent  and  practical  men.  All 
letters  addressed  to  me  at  Tecumseh,  in  reference  to  the 
above,  will  receive  prompt  attention. 

D.  P.  BONNELL. 

Tecumseh,  Nov.  17,  1849. 


214  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER, 

It  is  but  very  recently  that  the  patent  was  issued,  and 
that  I  have  been  prepared  to  sell;  yet  the  improvement  is 
now  in  practical  operation  in  Messrs.  C.  Spafford  & 
Co/s  "  Tecumseh  Mills/'  Messrs.  Comstock  &  Jackson's 
^^  Harrison  Mills/'  (twenty  miles  west  of  Adrian,) 
Messrs.  Kennedy  &  Harris's  Steam  Mills,  at  Jackson, 
and  is  highly  complimented  by  these  last-named  gentle- 
men, in  a  late  number  of  the  Detroit  Bulletin.  It  is 
also  in  operation  in  Mr.  Seneca  Hale's  "  Sidney  Mills," 
in  Shelby  county,  Ohio.  Certificates  from  the  proprie- 
tors of  these  mills  will  be  seen  herein.  Also,  from 
Charles  Howard  &  Co.,  (Mr.  Howard  is  Mayor  of  De- 
troit,) who  are  extensively  engaged  in  the  flour  trade, 
and  from  Mr.  John  Copland,  one  of  the  best  and  most 
respectable  bakers  in  that  city. 

Messrs.  Holly  &  Johnson,  of  Buffalo,  to  whom  the 
"Tecumseh  Mills"  flour  is  consigned,  in  remitting  ac- 
count of  sales  to  Mr.  C.  Spafford,  under  date  of  the  7th 
November,  say  :  "  These  are  low  figures,  but  the  sales 
in  both  cases  were  at  the  ^  top  of  the  market.'  " 

Mr.  S.  J.  Holley,  after  critically  examining  this  pro- 
cess, in  practical  operation  at  the  above  mill,  in  writing 
from  Buffalo,  a  few  days  subsequently,  to  Mr.  Spafford, 
says  :  "  You  are  unquestionably  making  your  barrel  of 
superfine  flour  from  12  pounds  less  wheat  than  any  mill 
in  the  State  of  Michigan."  [It  is  proper  here  to  re- 
mark that  the  machinery  so  examined  was  the  first  put 
up  to  try  the  practical  working  of  the  invention,  and 
before  application  for  a  patent  was  made,  and  that  the 
other  machinery  of  the  mill  was  not  well  adapted  to  it.] 


AND   millwright's  ASSISTANT.  215 

I  make  the  above  extracts  to  show,  that  although,  in 
the  opinion  of  Mr.  Holley,  the  yields  by  my  process  are 
from  ^^12  pounds  less  wheat  than  by  any  mill  in  the 
State/'  yet  the  flour  maintains  a  good  reputation,  and 
sells  at  the  top  of  the  market.'' 


A  NEW  AND  PERFECT  MACHINE  FOR  CRACKING 
CORN  IN  THE  COB. 

Patented  by  Mr.  Ross,  of  Pennsylvania. 

This  is  the  best  machine  for  the  purpose  I  have  ever 
examined.  The  breaking  is  accomplished  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  new  and  difi'erent  principle,  consisting  of 
a  series  of  cast-iron  cylindrical  saws,  so  framed  and  ar- 
ranged as  to  act  on  the  same  corn  but  once  in  breaking 
it  for  the  mill-stones;  there  being  no  power  lost  in  feed- 
ing the  machine,  the  saws  taking  an  equal  quantity  of 
feed  at  every  revolution.  It  runs  perfectly  steady, 
without  racking  any  part  of  the  other  machinery  of  the 
mill,  as  is  the  case  with  the  old-fashioned  corn-crusher 
It  is  capable  of  cracking  from  20  to  50  bushels  per 
hour,  making  about  200  revolutions  per  minute,  and  is 
also  easily  set  up,  it  being  driven  by  a  band  5  inches 
wide;  and  it  takes  up  but  a  small  space.  For  grist  mills 
which  do  a  large  custom  business,  it  is  just  the  machine 
wanted.  It  can  be  furnished  to  millers  in  any  part  of 
the  United  States,  by  addressing  Mr.  Ethan  A.  Cran- 
dall,  at  his  mill-stone  manufactory,  at  Troy,  New  York. 


216 


THE  AxMERICAN   MILLER, 


TROY  (NEW  YORK)  MILL-GEARING  ESTABLISHMENT, 
By  Messrs.  Starbuck  &  Sox, 

Who  are  also  manufacturing  steam  engines  of  all 
sizes,  together  with  mills  for  sawing  lumber,  on  an  im- 
proved plan.  These  saw-mills,  for  small  streams,  are  an 
excellent  substitute  for  the  purpose  designed,  being  all 
complete  of  cast-iron  gearing,  made  in  the  best  possible 
style.  This  concern  also  constructs  them  to  suit  all 
powers,  and  capable  of  sawing  from  500  to  3000  feet 
per  day,  with  engines  attached. 


Starbuck  &  Son   are   also   manufacturing  Leonard 
Smith's  patent  smut  machine ;  this  is  one  of  the  late 


AND   MILLWRIGHT^  S   ASSISTANT. 


217 


improved  machines,  and  said  to  work  very  well ;  they 
are  made  of  nine  different  sizes,  costing  from  $80  to  $200, 
and  will  clean  from  15  to  150  bushels  per  hour. 


CLASP  COUPLING  JOINT 

West  &  Thompson's  Patent,  New  York  City. — Patented  June 
27th,  1848. 

This  is  one  of  the  first-class  inventions  of  modem 
times  for  coupling  steam  and  other  pipes,  and  shafts, 

19 


218 

and  some  other  solid  bodies,  as  it  greatly  facilitates  the 
putting  them  up,  and  in  making  repairs,  and  at  less  ex- 
pense, as  it  dispenses  with  drilling  of  holes,  brazing, 
soldering,  and  fitting  up  flanches. 

The  figure  on  the  preceding  page  represents  two 
flanches,  joined  each  to  one  of  two  pieces  of  pipe,  and 
its  application  in  conducting  steam. 

P  P  are  pieces  of  pipe.  F  F  are  two  flanches,  joined 
each  to  one  of  the  pieces  of  pipe.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  form  given  to  the  flanches  is  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  retain  the  clasp  in  its  proper  place  under 
any  pressure  of  steam.  It  will  also  be  perceived  that 
the  inner  form  of  the  clasp  is  so  constructed  as  not  to 
bear  upon  the  flanches,  only  at  the  parts  where  the 
pressure  is  most  required,  close  to  the  pipe.  R  R  is  a 
piece  of  vulcanized  India  rubber,  or  any  other  packing 
that  may  be  thought  necessary.  C  C  is  the  clasp. 
This  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  this  part  is  repre- 
sented with  the  flanch  resting  on  it.  The  other  part  of 
this  clasp  is  represented  by  the  figure  to  the  right,  which 
shows  its  concave  part.  By  placing  this  over  the  flanches 
and  securing  the  two  parts  of  the  clasp  together  by 
bolts  passing  through  H  H,  is  all  the  operation  that  is 
required  in  connecting  two  separate  pieces  of  pipe  to- 
gether. Every  engineer  or  mechanic  will  perceive  that 
the  tighter  the  clasp  is  screwed  up,  the  faces  of  the 
flanches  are  brought  closer  together,  and  the  joint  is 
thereby  made  perfectly  tight. 

Advantages  of  this  Joint  over  all  others  now  in  use, 
with  a  list  of  prices, — 1.  The  cost  is  from  25  to  30  per 


AND   millwright's   ASSISTANT.  219 

cent.  less.  2.  The  labour  and  expense  of  brazing  or 
soldering  flanches  on  pipes  is  obviated,  and  not  required. 

8.  There  are  no  holes  to  drill  in  the  flanches,  washers 
to  use,  or  grummets  to  put  around  the  bolts.  4.  It  only 
requires  two,  or  at  most  three,  bolts  for  the  largest  size 
joint,  even  if  they  were  seven  feet  in  diameter.  5.  The 
joints  are  tighter  and  stronger,  as  the  pressure  is  exert- 
ed at  the  neck  of  the  flanch,  in  close  proximity  to  the 
periphery  of  the  pipe.  6.  The  cost  of  packing  is  one- 
half  less,  and  cannot  blow  out,  as  it  is  confined  by  the 
grooved  segmental  clasp.  7.  Joints  of  any  size  may 
be  taken  apart,  and  put  together  in  from  five  to  ten 
minutes.  8.  It  enables  a  defective  portion  of  a  feed  or 
blow-off  pipe  to  be  cut  out,  and  a  new  piece  to  be  put 
in,  without  involving  the  stopping  of  the  attached 
engine,  or  arresting  the  operation  of  the  attached  boiler. 

9.  They  are  more  economical  in  space,  weight,  cost, 
and  repairs,  and  are  applicable  to  cylinder  heads,  bon- 
nets, steam  chests,  air  pumps,  condensers,  man-hole 
plates  for  boilers,  stopcocks,  nozzles,  common  and  ro- 
tary pumps,  and  all  other  purposes  where  joints  are  re- 
quired. 

It  will  also  be  evident  from  the  foregoing,  to  any 
engineer  or  machinist,  and  experience  has  shown,  that 
shafts  and  other  solid  bodies  can  be  coupled  together  in 
like  manner  as  hollow  pipes  or  vessels.  The  flanches, 
instead  of  solid  projections,  of  the  bodies  to  be  united, 
may  be  made  separate,  and  connected  therewith  in  any 
manner  desired. 

In  flouring  mills,  the  shafts  may  be  taken  down  with- 


220  THE  AMERICAN   MILLER. 

out  interfering  with  the  bridge  trees  or  centres.  This 
particular  alone,  makes  it  preferable  to  any  other  cou- 
pling for  the  purpose,  as,  in  repairing,  time  and  expense 
is  saved,  and  not  having  to  overhaul  the  centres,  which, 
in  a  large  merchant  mill,  is  an  item  of  considerable  ex- 
pense on  the  old  plan  of  either  clutch  or  sleeve  coupling. 
These  couplings  are  made  and  kept  for  sale,  and  in- 
formation respecting  them  may  also  be  had,  by  applica- 
tion to  George  D.  Baldwin,  city  of  New  York. 


INDEX. 


Air  between  Millstones Page  118 

Bale  and  Driver 127 

Bran  Dusters  and  Separators 200 

Branding 130 

Breadstuffs,  Beck's  Report  on 134 

Bolts,  Making  Cloth  for 91 

Bolt,  Mauks's  Patent 131 

Bolting,  New  Materials  for 197 

Central  Forces 23 

Circle,  Geometrical  Definitions  of. 37 

Circumferences  of  Circles,  &c.,  Table  of 36 

Clasp  Coupling  Joint,  Thompson 217 

Conveyor 110 

Corn,  Machine  for  Cracking 216 

Economy  in  Mills 10^  ~ 

French  Burr 66 

French  Burr  Millstone  Manufactories 190 

Friction 25 

Tables  of 29,  30 

Flouring,  Bonnell's  Improved  Process 202 

Furrows 80 

Gearing,  Troy  Establishment 216 

Grains,  Culture  of. 63 

Grain  Dryer 120 

Gravity 99 

Grinding 84 

Harrison's  Patent  Mill 189 

19*  221 


222  INDEX. 

Help  necessaryin  a  Mill Page  94 

Hydraulics 96 

Hydrostatics 39 

Inspection  of  Flour 132 

Inclined  Plane 18 

Indian  Corn 87 

Journals  of  First  Movers,  Table  of 35 

Lever,  Principle  of 15 

Machinery 110 

Mechanics,  First  Principles  of. 13 

Merchant  Bolts,  Construction  of. 88 

New  Arrangement  of. 89 

Mill-Dams Ill 

Mill-Picks,  Tempering 92 

Size  of 91 

Millstone  Dresses 74 

Millstones,  Laying  Out  the  Dress  in 73 

The  Size  of. 83 

Staffing  and  Cracking  of. 81 

Motion 20 

New  Stones,  Directions  for  Preparing 70 

Packing  Flour 129 

Packer's  Table 130 

Percussion  and  Oscillation,  Centre  of. 38 

Pitch  Circles,  to  Find  Diameter  of 109 

Proof  StaflF,  Use  of 93 

Pulley 19 

Raccoon  Burr 69 

Saw-Logs,  Table  of. 187 

Saw-Mill 184 

Srnut  Machines 115 

Brown's 199 

Smith's 216 

Specific  Gravity 42 

Specific  Gravities,  Table  of 44 


INDEX.  223 

steam Page  183 

Stone,  Bedding 105 

to  Find  the  Velocity  of 108 

Stone  and  Wheel,  Revolutions  of 109 

Technical  Words,  EiKplanation  of. 11 

Water,  the  Action  and  Reaction  of 46 

Inches  to  Drive  one  Run  of  Stones,  Table  of. 65 

Upward  and  Downward  Pressure  of 40 

Water-Wheels,  Hydrodynamic  Power  of. -45 

Combination  Reaction 50 

Table  of  Velocities  of  54 

To  find  the  Revolutions  of. 108 

Howd's  Improved  Direct  Action 57 

Vandewater's 60 

Wheat  Flour,  Analysis  of 160 

Wheat,  Table  for  Reckoning  Price  of. 170 

Rules  for  Purchase  of 123 

Wheat  Scale,  Brown's 198 

Wheels,  Overshot 56 


THB  END. 


YALUABLE  PRACTICAL  BOOKS, 

PUBLISHED  BY 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD, 

SUCCESSOR   TO    E.    L.  CAREY, 

S.  E.  CORNER  OF  MARKET  AND  FIFTH  STREETS, 
PHILADELPHIA. 

Ipractical  QmtB. 

The  design  of  this  series  is  to  furnish  to  the  Artisan,  for  a 
moderate  sum,  hand-books  of  the  different  Arts  and  Manufac- 
tures. 

The  following  have  already  appeared,  and  additions  will, 
from  time  to  time,  be  made,  as  fast  as  the  volumes  can  be  pre- 
pared. 


THE  AMEEICAN  MILLER,  AND  MILLWRIGHT'S 
ASSISTANT. 

By  "William  Carter  Hughes. 

Illustrated  by  numerous  engravings  of  the  most   approved 
machinery,  &c.     In  one  volume,  12mo. 


THE  TURNER'S  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric 
Turning.  Also,  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instru- 
ments, and  Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Ver- 
tical Cutter,  and  Circular  Rest ;  with  Patterns,  and  instructions 
for  working  them.     In  one  volume,  12mo. 


THE  PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER^S 
COMPANION: 

Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  for  every  thing  relating  to 
the  arts  of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  and  Glass  Staining ; 
numerous  useful  and  valuable  Receipts  ;  Tests  for  the  detection 
of  Adulterations  in  Oils,  Colours,  &c.,  and  a  Statement  of  the 
Diseases  and  Accidents  to  which  Painters,  Gilders,  and  Var- 
nishers  are  particularly  liable ;  with  the  simplest  methods  of 
Prevention  and  Remedy.     In  one  volume,  small  12mo.,  cloth. 

Rejecting  all  that  appeared  foreign  to  the  subject,  the  compiler  has  omitted 
nothing  of  real  practical  worth. — Hunt's  MerchanVs  Mar/azine. 

An  excellent  practical  wm-k,  and  one  which  the  practical  man  cannot  afford 
to  be  without. — FuTmer  and  Mechanic. 

It  contains  every  thing  that  is  of  interest  to  persons  engaged  in  this  trade. 
— Bulletin. 

This  book  will  prove  valuable  to  all  whose  business  is  in  any  way  connected 
"With  painting. — Scott's  Weekly. 

Cannot  fail  to  be  useful. — JV.  Y.  Commercial. 


THE  BUILDER'S  POCKET  COMPANION: 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Archi- 
tecture ;  w^ith  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with 
the  subject.  By  A.  C.  Smeaton,  Civil  Engineer,  &c.  In  one 
volume,  12mo. 

Contents  : — The  Builder,  Carpenter,  Joiner,  Mason,  Plas- 
terer, Plumber,  Painter,  Smith,  Practical  Geometry,  Surveyor, 
Cohesive  Strength  of  Bodies,  Architect. 

It  gives,  in  a  small  space,  the  most  thorough  directions  to  the  builder,  from 
the  laying  of  a  brick,  or  the  felling  of  a  tree,  up  to  the  most  elaborate  pro* 
duction  of  ornamental  architecture.  It  is  scientific,  without  being  obscure  and 
•unintelligible,  and  every  house-carpenter,  master,  journeyman,  or  apprentice, 
should  have  a  copy  at  hand  always. — Evening  Btdhtin. 

Complete  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.  A  most  useful  practical  work. 
— Bixlt.  American. 

It  must  be  of  great  practical  utility. — Savannah  Republican. 

To  whatever  branch  of  the  art  of  building  the  reader  may  belong,  he  will 
find  in  this  something  valuable  and  calculated  to  assist  his  progress. — Farmer 
and  Mechanic. 

This  is  a  valuable  little  volume,  designed  to  assist  the  student  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  elementary  knowledge,  and  will  be  found  highly  advantageous  to  every 
young  man  who  has  devoted  himself  to  the  interesting  pursuits  of  which  it 
treats. — Ya.  Herald. 


3 

THE  DYER  AND  COLOUR-MAKER'S  COM- 
PANION: 

Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Co- 
lors, on  the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles 
and  fabrics  now  in  existence ;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and 
plain  Directions  for  Preparing,  Wasliing-off,  and  Finishing  the 
Goods.     In  one  volume,  small  12mo.,  cloth. 

This  is  another  of  that  most  excellent  class  of  practical  books,  which  the 
publisher  is  giving  to  the  public.  Indeed  we  believe  there  is  not,  for  manu- 
facturers, a  more  valuable  work,  having  been  prepared  for,  and  expressly 
adapted  to  their  business. — Farmer  and  Mechanic. 

It  is  a  valuable  book, — Otsego  JRepuUican. 

We  have  shown  it  to  some  practical  men,  who  all  pronounced  it  the  completest 
thing  of  the  kind  they  had  seen — N.  Y.  Nation. 


THE  CABINET-MAKER  AND  UPHOLSTERER'S 
COMPANION: 

Comprising  the  Rudiments  and  Principles  of  Cabinet  Making 
and  Upholstery,  with  familiar  instructions,  illustrated  by  Ex- 
amples, for  attaining  a  proficiency  in  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as 
applicable  to  Cabinet  Work ;  the  processes  of  Veneering,  Inlay- 
ing, and  Buhl  Work ;  the  art  of  Dyeing  and  Staining  Wood,  ^ 
Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lackering,  Ja- 
panning, and  Varnishing ;  to  make  French  Polish ;  to  prepare 
the  best  Glues,  Cements,  and  Compositions,  and  a  number  of 
Receipts  particularly  useful  for  Workmen  generally,  with  Ex- 
planatory and  Illustrative  Engravings-  By  J.  Stokes.  In  one 
volume,  12 mo.,  with  illustrations. 


Jl^^  The  two  following  are  in  preparation  : 

THE  TANNER  AND  CURRIER'S  COMPANION. 

In  one  volume,  12mo. 


THE  BREWER'S  COMPANION. 

In  one  volume,  12mo. 


THE  FEUIT,  FLOWER,  AND  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 

By  Patrick  Neill,  L.L.D. 
Thoroughly  revised,  and  adapted  to  the  climate  and  seasons 
of  the  United  States,  by  a  Practical  Horticulturist.     Illustrated 
by  numerous  Engravings.     In  one  volume,  12mo. 


HOUSEHOLD  SURGERY;  OR,  HINTS  ON  EMER- 
GENCIES. 

By  J.  F.  South,  one  of  the  Surgeons  of  St.  Thomas's  Hos- 
pital. In  one  volume,  12mo.  Illustrated  by  nearly  fifty  En- 
gravings. 

CONTENTS : 

The  Doctoi^s  Shop. — ^Poultices,  Fomentations,  Lotions,  Lini- 
ments, Ointments,  Plasters. 

Surgery. — Blood-letting,  Blistering,  Vaccination,  Tooth-draw- 
ing, How  to  put  on  a  Koller,  Lancing  the  Gums,  Swollen  Veins, 
Bruises,  Wounds,  Torn  or  Cut  Achilles  Tendon,  What  is  to  be 
done  in  cases  of  sudden  Bleeding  from  various  causes.  Scalds 
and  Bums,  Frost-bite,  Chilblains,  Sprains,  Broken  Bones,  Bent 
Bones,  Dislocations,  Ruptures,  Piles,  Protruding  Bowels,  AVet- 
ting  the  Bed,  Whitlow,  Boils,  Black-heads,  Ingrowing  Nails, 
Bunions,  Corns,  Sty  in  the  Eye,  Blight  in  the  Eye,  Tumours  in 
the  Eyelids,  Inflammation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Eye,  Pustules 
on  the  Eye,  Milk  Abscesses,  Sore  Nipples,  Irritable  Breast, 
Breathing,  Stifling,  Choking,  Things  in  the  Eye,  On  Dress, 
Exercise  and  Diet  of  Children,  Bathing,  Infections,  Observations 
on  Ventilation. 


HOUSEHOLD  MEDICINE. 

In  one  volume,  12mo.     Uniform  with,  and  a  companion  to, 
the  above.     (In  immediate  preparation.) 


6 

THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  CHEMISTRY,  PRACTI- 
CAL AND  THEORETICAL : 

Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy, 
Geology,  Medicine,  and  Pharmacy,  By  James  C.  Booth,  Melter 
and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint ;  Professor  of  Applied 
Chemistry  in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.;  assisted  by  Campbell 
MoRFiT,  author  of  "Chemical  Manipulations,"  etc.  Complete 
in  one  volume,  royal  octavo,  978  pages,  with  numerous  wood- 
cuts and  other  illustrations. 

It  covers  the  whole  field  of  Chemistry  as  applied  to  Arts  and  Sciences.  *  *  * 
As  no  library  is  complete  without  a  common  dictionary,  it  is  also  our  opinion 
that  none  can  be  without  this  Encyclopedia  of  Chemistry. — Scientific  American. 

A  work  of  time  and  labour,  and  a  treasury  of  chemical  information. — North 
American. 

By  far  the  best  manual  of  the  kind  which  has  been  presented  to  the  Ameri- 
can public. — Boston  Courier. 

An  invaluable  work  for  the  dissemination  of  sound  practical  knowledge.— 
Ledger. 

A  treasury  of  chemical  information,  including  all  the  latest  and  most  import- 
ant discoveries. — Baltimore  American. 

At  the  first  glance  at  this  massive  volume,  one  is  amazed  at  the  amount  of 
reading  furnished  in  its  compact  double  pages,  about  one  thousand  in  number. 
A  further  examination  shows  that  every  page  is  richly  stored  with  informar 
tion,  and  that  while  the  labours  of  the  authors  have  covered  a  wide  field,  they 
have  neglected  or  slighted  nothing.  Every  chemical  term,  substance,  and  pro- 
cess is  elaborately,  but  intelligibly,  described.  The  whole  science  of  Chemistry 
is  placed  before  the  reader  as  fully  as  is  practicable,  with  a  science  continually 
progressing.  *  *  Unlike  most  American  works  of  this  class,  the  authors  have 
not  depended  upon  any  one  European  work  for  their  materials.  They  have " 
gathered  theirs  from  works  on  Chemistry  in  all  languages,  and  in  all  parts  of 
Europe  and  America ;  their  own  experience,  as  practical  chemists,  being  ever 
ready  to  settle  doubts  or  reconcile  conflicting  authorities.  The  fruit  of  so  much 
toil  is  a  work  that  must  ever  be  an  honour  to  American  Science. — Evening  Btd' 
letin. 


PERFUMERY;  ITS  MANUFACTURE  AND  USE: 

With  Instructions  in  every  branch  of  the  Art,  and  Receipts 
for  all  the  Fashionable  Preparations  ;  the  whole  forming  a  valu- 
able aid  to  the  Perfumer,  Druggist,  and  Soap  Manufacturer. 
Illustrated  by  numerous  Wood-cuts.  From  the  French  of  Cel- 
nart,  and  other  late  authorities.  With  Additions  and  Improve- 
ments by  Campbell  Morfit,  one  of  the  Editors  of  the  "  Ency- 
clopedia of  Chemistry."     In  one  volume,  12mo.,  cloth. 


6 

THE  MANDTACTTTRE  OF  IHON,  IS  ALL  ITS 

VARIOUS  BRANCHES: 

To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  the  Manufacture  of  Steel,  by 

Frederick  Overman,  Mining  Engineer,  with  one  hundred  and 

fifty  Wood  Engravings.     In  one  volume,  octavo,  five  hundred 

pages. 

We  have  now  to  announce  the  appearance  of  another  valuable  work  on  the 
subject  which,  in  our  humble  opinion,  supplies  any  deficiency  which  late  im- 
provements and  discoveries  may  have  caused,  from  the  lapse  of  time  since  the 
date  of  "  Mushet"  and  "  Schrivenor."  It  is  the  production  of  one  of  our  trans- 
atlantic brethren,  Mr.  Frederick  Overman,  Mining  Engineer :  and  we  do  not 
hesitate  to  set  it  down  as  a  work  of  great  importance  to  all  connected  with  the 
iron  interest;  one  which,  while  it  is  sufiiciently  technological  fully  to  explain 
chemical  analysis,  and  the  various  phenomena  of  iron  under  different  circum- 
stances, to  the  satisfaction  of  the  most  fastidious,  is  written  in  that  clear  and 
comprehensive  style  as  to  be  available  to  the  capacity  of  the  humblest  mind, 
and  consequently  will  be  of  much  advantage  to  those  works  where  the  pro- 
prietors may  see  the  desirability  of  placing  it  in  the  hands  of  their  operatives. 
— London  Morning  Journal. 


SYLLABUS  OF  A  COMPLETE  COURSE  OF  LEC- 
TURES  ON  CHEMISTRY: 

Including  its  Application  to  the  Arts,  Agriculture,  and  Mining, 
prepared  for  the  use  of  the  Gentlemen  Cadets  at  the  Hon.  E.  I. 
Co.'s  Military  Seminary,  Addiscombe.  By  Professor  E.  Solly, 
Lecturer  on  Chemistry  in  the  Hon.  E.  I.  Co.'s  Military  Seminary. 
Revised  by  the  Author  of  *' Chemical  Manipulations."  In  one 
volume,  octavo,  cloth. 

The  present  work  is  designed  to  occupy  a  vacant  place  in  the  libraries  of 
Chemical  text-books.  It  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  of  both  teacher 
and  PUPIL ;  and  will  be  found  especially  convenient  to  the  latter,  either  aa  a 
companion  in  the  class-room,  or  as  a  remembrancer  in  the  study.  It  gives,  at 
a  glance,  under  appropriate  headings,  a  classified  view  of  the  whole  science, 
which  is  at  the  same  time  compendious  and  minutely  accurate ;  and  its  wide 
margins  afford  suflBcient  blank  space  for  such  manuscript  notes  as  the  student 
may  wish  to  add  during  lectures  or  recitations. 

The  almost  indispensable  advantages  of  such  an  impressive  aid  to  memory 
are  evident  to  every  student  who  has  used  one  in  other  branches  of  study. 
Therefore,  as  there  is  now  no  Chemical  Syllabus,  we  have  been  induced  by  the 
excellencies  of  this  work  to  recommend  its  republication  in  this  country;  con- 
fident that  an  examination  of  the  contents  will  produce  full  conviction  of  its 
intrinsic  wortk  and  usefulness. — Uditor's  Preface* 


7 
ELECTROTYPE  MANIPULATION: 

Being  the  Theory  and  Plain  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Working 
in  Metals,  by  Precipitating  them  from  their  Solutions,  through 
the  agency  of  Galvanic  or  Voltaic  Electricity.  By  Charles  V. 
Walker,  Hon.  Secretary  to  the  London  Electrical  Society,  etc. 
Illustrated  by  Wood-cuts.  In  one  volume,  24mo.,  cloth.  From 
the  thirteenth  London  edition. 


PHOTOGENIC  MANIPULATION: 

Containing  the  Theory  and  Plain  Instructions  in  the  Art  of 
Photography,  or  the  Productions  of  Pictures  through  the  Agency 
of  Light ;  including  Calotype,  Chrysotype,  Cyanotype,  Chroma- 
type,  Energiatype,  Anthotype,  Amphitype,  Daguerreotype, 
Thermography,  Electrical  and  Galvanic  Impressions.  By 
George  Thomas  Fisher,  Jr.,  Assistant  in  the  Laboratory  of 
the  London  Institution.  Illustrated  by  wood-cuts.  In  one  vo- 
lume, 24mo.,  cloth. 

MATHEMATICS  FOR  PRACTICAL  MEN: 

Being  a  Common^Place  Book  of  Principles,  Theorems,  Rules, 
and  Tables,  in  various  departments  of  Pure  and  Mixed  Mathe- 
matics, with  their  Applications ;  especially  to  the  pursuits  of 
Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics,  and  Civil  Engineers,  with  nu- 
merous Engravings.    By  Olinthus  Gregory,  L.  L.  D.,  F.  R.  A.  S. 

Only  let  men  awake,  and  fix  their  eyes,  one  while  on  the  nature  of  things, 
another  while  on  the  application  of  them  to  the  use  and  service  of  mankind. 
— Lord  Bacon. 


AN  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 
ON  ORDNANCE  AND  GUNNERY: 

Prepared  for  the  use  of  the  Midshipmen  at  the  Naval  SchooL 
By  James  H.  Ward,  U.  S.  N.     In  one  volume,  octavo. 


8 
A  GUIDE  TO  WORKERS  IN  METAL  AND  STONE: 

For  the  use  of  Architects  and  Designers,  Black  and  White- 
Smiths,  Brass  Founders,  Gas  Fitters,  Iron  Masters,  Plumbers, 
Silver  and  Gold-Smiths,  Stove  and  Furnace  Manufacturers, 
Pattern  Makers,  Marble  Masons,  Stucco  Makers,  Carvers  and 
Ornamental  Workers  in  Wood,  Potters,  &c.,  from  original  De- 
signs and  Selections  made  from  every  acceptable  source,  Ameri^ 
can  and  European.  By  Thomas  U.  Walter,  Architect  of  Gi- 
rard  College,  and  John  Jay  Smith,  Librarian  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Library.     In  four  parts,  quarto. 


TWO  HUNDRED  DESIGNS  FOR  COTTAGES  AND 
VILLAS,  etc.  etc., 

Original  and  Selected.  By  Thomas  U.  Walter,  Architect  of 
Girard  College,  and  John  Jay  Smith,  Librarian  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Library.     In  four  parts,  quarto. 


SHEEP  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  SOUTH: 

Comprising  a  Treatise  on  the  Acclimation  of  Sheep  in  the 
Southern  States,  and  an  Account  of  the  Different  Breeds.  Also, 
a  Complete  Manual  of  Breeding,  Summer  and  Winter  Manage- 
ment, and  of  the  Treatment  of  Diseases.  With  Portraits  and 
other  Illustrations.  By  Henry  S.  Randall.  In  one  volume, 
octavo. 


MISS  LESLIE'S  COMPLETE  COOKERY. 

Directions  for  Cookery,  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss 
Leslie.  Fortieth  edition.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  new  Receipts.     In  one  volume,  12mo. 


BOOKS 

PUBLISHED  BY  HENRY  C.  BAIRD, 

(SUCCESSOR  TO  E.  L.  CAREY,) 

S.  E.  CORNER  MARKET  AND  FIFTH  STS. 

PHILADELPHIA. 


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